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THE ' f fCt
PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
A HAND-BOOK FOR OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS.
WITH MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND ITINERARIES OF
THE PRINICIPAL ROUTES BETWEEN THE
MISSISSIPPI AND THE PACIFIC.
BY RANDOLPH B. MARCY,
CAPTAIN IT. S. AKMY.
rUBLISHED BT AUTHORITY OF THE WAR DEPAETMBNT.
NEW EDITI
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHER
FF.\NKLIN 8QUAEE, 1 861
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York.
\\v
PREFACE.
A QUARTER of a centurj's experience in fron- tier life, a great portion of which has been occu- pied in exploring the interior of our continent, and in long marches where I have been thrown exclusively upon my own resources, far beyond the bounds of the populated districts, and where the traveler must vary his expedients to sur- mount the numerous obstacles which the nature of the country continually reproduces, has shown me under what great disadvantages the ''''voy- ageur^^ labors for want of a timely initiation into those minor details of prairie-craft, which, how- ever apparently unimportant in the abstract, are sure, upon the plains, to turn the balance of suc- cess for or against an enterprise.
This information is so varied, and is derived from so many different sources, that I still find every new expedition adds substantially to my practical knowledge, and am satisfied that a good
VI PREFxVCE.
Prairie Manual will be for the young traveler an addition to his equipment of inappreciable value.
With such a book in his hand, he will be able, in difficult circumstances, to avail himself of the matured experience of veteran travelers, and thereby avoid many otherwise unforeseen disas- ters ; while, during the ordinary routine of march- ing, he will greatly augment the sum of his com- forts, avoid many serious losses, and enjoy a com- parative exemption from doubts and anxieties. He will feel himself a master spirit in the wilder- ness he traverses, and not the victim of every new combination of circumstances which nature affords or fate allots, as if to try his skill and prowess.
I have waited for several years, with the con- fident expectation that some one more competent than myself would assume the task, and give the public the desired information ; but it seems that no one has taken sufficient interest in the subject to disseminate the benefits of his experience in this way. Our frontier-men, although brave in council and action, and possessing an intelligence that quickens in the face of danger, are apt to feel shy of the pen. They shun the atmosphere of the student's closet; their sphere is in the free and open wilderness. It is not to be won-
PREFACE. Vll
dered at, therefore, that to our veteran borderer the field of literature should remain a " terra in- cogniiar It is our army that unites the chasm between the culture of civilization in the aspect of science, art, and social refinement, and the pow- erful simplicity of nature. On leaving the Mili- tary Academy, a majority of our officers are at- tached to the line of the army, and forthwith as- signed to duty upon our remote and extended frontier, where the restless and warlike habits of the nomadic tribes render the soldier's life almost as unsettled as that of the savages themselves.
A regiment is stationed to-day on the borders of tropical Mexico ; to-morrow, the war-whoop, borne on a gale from the northwest, compels its presence in the frozen latitudes of Puget's Sound. The very limited numerical strength of our army, scattered as it is over a vast area of territory, ne- cessitates constant changes of stations, long and toilsome marches, a promptitude of action, and a tireless energy and self-reliance, that can only be acquired through an intimate acquaintance with the sphere in which we act and move.
The education of our officers at the Military Academy is doubtless well adapted to the art of civilized warfare, but can not familiarize them with the diversified details of border service ; and they often, at the outset of their military career,
Vm PEEFACE.
find themselves compelled to improvise new ex- pedients to meet novel emergences.
The life of the wilderness is an art as well as that of the city or court, and every art subjects its votaries to discipline in preparing them for a successful career in its pursuit. The Military Art, as enlarged to meet all the requirements of border service, the savage in his wiles or the ele- ments in their caprices, embraces many other special arts which have hitherto been almost ig- nored, and results which experience and calcula- tion should have guaranteed have been improvi- dently staked upon favorable chances.
The main object at which I have aimed in the following pages has been to explain and illus- trate, as clearly and succinctly as possible, the best methods of performing the duties devolving upon the prairie traveler, so as to meet their con- tingencies under all circumstances, and thereby to endeavor to establish a more uniform system of marching and campaigning in the Indian coun- try.
I have also furnished itineraries of most of the principal routes that have been traveled across the plains, taken from the best and most reliable authorities; and I have given some information concerning the habits of the Indians and wild animals that frequent the prairies, with the secrets
PREFACE. IX
of the hunter's and warrior's strategy, which I have endeavored to impress more forcibly upon the reader by introducing illustrative anecdote.
I take great pleasure in acknowledging my in- debtedness to several ofiicers of the Topographical Engineers and of other corps of the army for the valuable information I have obtained from their official reports regarding the different routes em- braced in the itineraries, and to these gentlemen I beg leave very respectfully to dedicate my book.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The different Routes to California and Oregon. — Their re- spective Advantages. — Organization of Companies. — Elec- tions of Captains. — Wagons and Teams. — Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. — Stores and Provisions. — How packed. — Desiccated and canned Vegetables. — Pemmican. — Anti- scorbutics.— Cold Flour. — Substitutes in case of Necessity. — Amount of Supplies. — Clothing. — Camp Equipage. — Arms Page 15
CHAPTER II.
Marching. — Treatment of Animals. — Water. — Different meth- ods of finding and purifying it. — Journadas. — Methods of crossing them. — Advance and Rear Guards. — Selection of Camp. — Sanitary Considerations. — Dr. Jackson's Report. — Picket Guards. — Stampedes. — How to prevent them. — Cor- raling Wagons 44:
CHAPTER III.
Repairing broken Wagons. — Fording Rivers. — Quicksand. — Wagon Boats. — Bull Boats. — Crossing Packs. — Swimming Animals. — Marching with loose Horses. — Herding Mules. — Best Methods of Marching. — Herding and guarding Ani- mals.— Descending Mountains. — Stomas. — Northers.... 71
CHAPTER IV.
Packing. — Saddles. — Mexican Method. — Madrina, or Bell- mare. — Attachment of the Mule illustrated. — Best Method
XU CONTENTS.
of Packing. — Hoppling Animals. — Selecting Horses and Mules. — Grama and bunch Grass. — European Saddles. — California Saddle. — Saddle Wounds. — Alkali. — Flies. — Colic. — Rattlesnake Bites. — Cures for the Bite Page 98
CHAPTER V.
Bivouacs. — Tente d' Abri. — Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. — Comanche Lodge. — Sibley Tent.— Camp Furniture. — Lit- ters.— Rapid Traveling. — Fuel. — Making Fires. — Fires on the Praii'ies. — Jerking Meat. — Making Lariats. — Making Caches. — Disposition of Fire-arms. — Colt's Revolvers. — Gun Accidents. — Trailing. — Indian Sagacity 133
CHAPTER VI.
Guides and Hunters. — Delawares and Shawnees. — Khebirs. — Black Beaver. — Anecdotes. — Domestic Troubles. — Lodges. — Similarity of Prairie Tribes to the Arabs. — Method of making War. — Tracking and pursuing Indians. — Method of attacking them. — Telegraphing by Smokes 183
CHAPTER VIL Hunting. — Its Benefits to the Soldier. — Buffalo. — Deer. — An- telope.— Bear. — Big-horn, or Mountain Sheep. — Their Habits, and Hints upon the best Methods of hunting them 230
Itineraries 269
Appendix 375
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Map of Overland Eontes at end of volume.
Port Smith, Arkansas Frontispiece.
Swimming a Horse 78
Diagram for Measurements 81
Crossing a Stream 87
Grimsley's Pack-saddle 99
California Saddle 119
Half-faced Camp 134
Conical Bivonac ^ 135
Tent Knapsack 137
Comanche Lodge 140
Sibley Tent „ 143
Camp Chairs 14o
Camp Table— Field Cot 14G
Field Cot— Camp Bureau 148
Mess-chest 149
Horse-litter 151
Hand-litter 154
The Grizzly 167
Horse-tracks 178
Keep aAvay ! 209
Buffalo and other Tracks 231
Rifle-sights and Pouch 249
Calling up Antelopes 262
The Needles 270
Chimney Rock 285
Devil's Gate 287
Well in the Desert 308
Map of the Pike's Peak Gold Region 312
Sangre de Cristo Pass 316
San Francisco Mountain 325
Canon on Bill Williams's Fork 328
Artillery Peak 329
India-rubber Cloak 375
THE PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
CHAPTER I.
The dift'erent Routes to California and Oregon.— Their re- spective Advantages. — Organization of Companies. — Elec- tions of Captains. — Wagons and Teams. — Relative Merits of Mules and Oxen. — Stores and Provisions. — How packed. — Desiccated and canned Vegetables. — Pemmican. — Anti- scorbutics.— Cold Flour. — Substitutes in case of Necessity. — Amount of Supplies. — Clothing. — Camp Equipage. — Arms.
ROUTES TO CALIFORNIA AND OREGON.
Emigrants or others desiring to make the over- land journey to the Pacific should bear in mind that there are several different routes which may be traveled with wagons, each having its advocates in persons directly or indirectly interested in attract- ing the tide of emigration and travel over them.
Information concerning these routes coming from strangers living or owning property near them, from agents of steam-boats or railways, or from other persons connected with transportation companies, should be received with great caution, and never without corroborating evidence from disinterested sources.
There is no doubt that each one of these roads
16 PKAIRIE TRAVELER.
has its advantages and disadvantages, but a judi- cious selection must depend chiefly upon the fol« lowing considerations, namely, the locality from whence the individual is to take his departure, the season of the year when he desires to com- mence his journey, the character of his means of transjDortation, and the point upon the Pacific coast that he wishes to reach.
Persons living in the Northeastern States can, with about equal ficility and dispatch, reach the eastern terminus of any one of the routes they may select by means of public transport. And, as ani- mals are much cheaper upon the frontier than in the Eastern States, they should purchase their teams at or near the point where the overland journey is to commence.
Those living in the Northwestern States, having their own teams, and wishing to go to any point north of San Francisco, will of course make choice of the route which takes its departure from the Missouri Iliver.
Those who live in the middle Western States, having their own means of transportation, and going to any pohit upon the Pacific coast, should take one of the middle routes.
Others, who reside in the extreme Southwest, and whose destination is south of San Francisco, should travel the southern road running through Texas, \vhi(;h is the only one practicable for comfortable whiter travel. The grass upon a great portion of
ROUTES TO CALIFORNIA AND OREGON. 17
this route is green during the entire winter, and snow seldom covers it. This road leaves the Gulf coast at Poicder-horn^ on Matagorda Bay, which point is difficult of access by land from the north, but may be reached by steamers from New Orleans five times a week.
There are stores at Powder-horn and Indianola where the traveler can obtain most of the articles necessary for his journey, but I would recommend him to supply himself before leaving New Orleans with every thing he requires with the exception of animals, which he will find cheaper in Texas.
This road has received a large amount of travel since 1849, is well tracked and defined, and, except- ing about twenty miles of '•'• hog loalloio prairie)'' near Powder-horn, it is an excellent road for car- riages and wagons. It passes through a settled country for 250 miles, and within this section sup- plies can be had at reasonable rates.
At Victoria and San Antonio many fine stores will be found, well supphed with large stocks of goods, embracing all the articles the traveler will require.
The next route to the north is that over which the semi- weekly mail to California passes, and which, for a great portion of the way to New Mexico, I traveled and recommended in 1849. This road leaves the Arkansas River at Fort Smith, to which point steamers run during the seasons of high water in the winter and spring. B
18 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
Supplies of all descriptions necessary for the over- land journey may be procured at Fort Smith, or at Van Buren on the opposite side of the Arkansas. Horses and cattle are cheap here. The road, on leaving Fort Smith, j)asses through the Choctaw and Chickasaw country for 180 nules, then crosses Red Kiver by ferry-boat at Preston, and runs through the border settlements of northern Texas for 150 miles, within which distances supplies may be pro- cured at moderate prices.
This road is accessible to persons desiring to make the entire journey wdth their own transporta- tion from Tennessee or Mississippi, by crossmg the Mississippi River at Memphis or Helena, passing Little Rock, and thence through Washington Coun- ty, intersecting the road at Preston. It may also be reached by taking steamers up Red River to Shreveport or Jefferson, from either of which places there are roads running through a populated coun- try, and intersecting the Fort Smith road near Preston.
This road also unites with the San Antonio road at El Paso, and from that point they pass together over the mountains to Fort Yuma and to San Fran- cisco in California.
Another road leaves Fort Smith and runs up the south side of the Canadian River to Santa Fe and Albuquerque in New Mexico.
This route is set down upon most of the maps of the present day as having been discovered and ex-
EOUTES TO CALIFOENIA AND OREGON. 19
plored by various i)ersons, but my own name seems to have been carefully excluded from the list. "Whether this omission has been intentional or not, I leave for the authors to determine. I shall merely remark that I had the command and entire direc- tion of an expedition which in 1849 discovered, explored, located, and marked out this identical wagon road from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and that this road, for the greater portion of the distance, is the same that has been since recommended for a Pacific railway.
This road, near Albuquerque, unites with Captain "Whipple's and Lieutenant Beall's roads to California.
Another road, which takes its departure from Fort Smith and passes through the Cherokee coun- try, is called the " Cherokee Trail." It crosses Grand River at Fort Gibson, and runs a little north of west to the Verdigris River, thence up the valley of this stream on the north side for 80 miles, when it crosses the river, and, taking a northwest course, strikes the Arkansas River near old Fort Mann, on the Santa Fe trace ; thence it passes near the base of Pike's Peak, and follows down Cherry Creek from its source to its confluence with the South Platte, and from thence over the mountains into Utah, and on to California via Fort Bridger and Salt Lake City.
For persons who desire to go from the Southern States to the gold diggings in the vicinity of Cherry Creek, this route is shorter by some 300 miles than
20 PRAIEIE TEAVELER.
that from Fort Smith via Fort Leavenworth. It is said to be an excellent road, and well supplied with the requisites for encamping. It has been traveled by large parties of California emigrants for several years, and is well tracked and defined.
The grass upon all the roads leavmg Fort Smith is sufiiciently advanced to afford sustenance to ani- mals by the first of April, and from this time until winter sets in it is abundant. The next route on the north leaves the Missouri River at Westport, Leavenworth City, Atcheson, or from other towns above, between either of which points and St. Louis steamers ply during the entire summer season.
The necessary outfit of supplies can always be procured at any of the starting-points on the Mis- souri Kiver at moderate rates.
This is the great emigrant route from Missouri to California and Oregon, over which so many thousands have traveled within the past few years. The track is broad, well worn, and can not be mis- taken. It has received the major part of the Mor- mon emigration, and was traversed by the army m its march to Utah in 1857.
At the point where this road crosses the South Platte River, Lieutenant Bryan's road branches off to the left, leading through Bridger's Pass, and thence to Fort Bridger. The Fort Kearney route to the ecold rcGfion near Pike's Peak also leaves the emigrant road at this place and runs n]i the South Platte.
EOUTES TO CALIFOENIA AND OEEGON. 21
From Fort Bridger there are two roads that may be traveled with wagons in the direction of Califor- nia ; one passing Salt Lake City, and the other run- ning down Bear River to Soda Sj^rings, intersecting the Salt Lake City road at the City of Bocks. Near Soda Springs the Oregon road turns to the right, passmg Fort Hall, and thence down Snake River to Fort Wallah-Wallah. Unless travelers have business in Salt Lake Valley, I would advise them to take the Bear River route, as it is much shorter, and better in every resjoect. The road, on leaving the Missouri River, passes for 150 miles through a settled country where grain can be pur- chased cheap, and there are several stores in this section where most of the articles required by trav- elers can be obtained.
Many j)ersons who have had much experience in prairie travelmg prefer leaving the Missouri River in March or April, and feeding grain to their ani- mals until the new grass appears. The roads be- come muddy and heavy after the S]3ring rains set in, and by starting out early the worst part of the road will be passed over before the ground becomes wet and soft. This plan, however, should never be attempted unless the animals are well supplied with grain, and kept in good condition. They will eat the old grass in the spring, but it does not, in this climate, as in Utah and New Mexico, afford them sufficient sustenance.
The grass, after the 1st of May, is good and
22 PEAIKIE TRAVELEK.
abundant upon this road as far as the South Pass, from whence there is a section of about 50 miles where it is scarce ; there is also a scarcity upon the desert beyond the sink of the Humboldt. As large niunbers of cattle pass over the road annually, they soon consume all the grass in these barren local- ities, and such as pass late in the season are likely to suffer greatly, and oftentimes perish from starva- tion. When I came over the road in August, 1858, I seldom found myself out of sight of dead cattle for 500 miles along the road, and this was an un- usually favorable year for grass, and before the main body of animals had passed for that season.
Upon the head of the Sweetwater River, and west of the South Pass, alkaline springs are met with, which are exceedingly poisonous to cattle and horses. They can readily be detected by the yel- lowish-red color of the grass growing around them. Animals should never be allowed to graze near them or to drink the water.
ORGANIZATION OF COMPANIES.
After a particular route has been selected to make the journey across the plains, and the requisite num- ber have arrived at the eastern terminus, their first business should be to organize themselves into a company and elect a commander. The company should be of sufficient magnitude to herd and guard animals, and for protection against Indians.
From 50 to 70 men, properly armed and equip-
ORGANIZATION OF COMPANIES. 23
ped, will be enough for these purposes, and any greater number only makes the movements of the party more cumbersome and tardy.
In the selection of a captain, good judgment, in- tegrity of purpose, and practical experience are the essential requisites, and these are indispensable to the harmony and consolidation of the association. His duty should be to direct the order of march, the time of starting and halting, to select the camps, detail and give orders to guards, and, indeed, to control and superintend all the movements of the company.
An obligation should then be drawn up and sign- ed by all the members of the association, wherein each one should bind himself to abide in all cases by the orders and decisions of the captain, and to aid him by every means in his power in the execu- tion of his duties ; and they should also obligate themselves to aid each other, so as to make the in- dividual interest of each member the common con- cern of the whole company. To insure this, a fund should be raised for the purchase of extra animals to supply the places of those which may give out or die on the road ; and if the wagon or team of a particular member should fail and have to be aban- doned, the company should obligate themselves to transport his luggage, and the captain should see that he has his share of transportation equal with any other member. Thus it will be made the in- terest of every member of the company to watch
24 PEAIRIE TRAVELER.
over and protect the proj^erty of others as well as his own.
In case of failure on the part of any one to com- ply with the obligations imposed by the articles of agreement after they have been duly executed, the company should of course have the power to punish the delinquent member, and, if necessary, to exclude him from all the benefits of the association.
On such a journey as this, there is much to in- terest and amuse one who is fond of picturesque scenery, and of wild life in its most primitive aspect, yet no one should attempt it without anticipating many rough knocks and much hard labor ; every man must expect to do his share of duty faithfully and without a murmur.
On long and arduous expeditions men are apt to become irritable and ill-natured, and oftentunes fan- cy they have more labor imposed upon them than their comrades, and that the person who directs the march is partial toward his favorites, etc. That man who exercises the greatest forbearance under such circumstances, who is cheerful, slow to take up quarrels, and endeavors to reconcile difiiculties among his companions, is deserving of all praise, and will, without doubt, contribute largely to the success and comfort of an expedition.
The advantages of an association such as I have mentioned are manifestly numerous. The animals can be herded together and guarded by the differ- ent members of the company m rotation, thereby
WAGONS AND TEAMS. 25
securing to all the oj^portunities of sleep and rest. Besides, this is the only way to resist depredations of the Indians, and to prevent their stampeding and driving off animals ; and much more efficiency is secm-ed in every respect, especially in crossing streams, repairing roads, etc., etc.
Unless a systematic organization be adopted, it is impossible for a party of any magnitude to travel in company for any great length of time, and for all the members to agree upon the same arrangements in marching, camping, etc. I have several times ob- served, where this has been attempted, that discords and dissensions sooner or later arose which invari- ably residted in breaking up and separating the company.
When a captain has once been chosen, he should be sustained in all his decisions unless he commit some manifest outrage, when a majority of the com- pany can always remove him, and j^ut a more com- petent man in his place. Sometimes men may be selected who, upon trial, do not come up to the an- ticipations of those who have placed them in power, and other men will exhibit, during the course of the march, more capacity. Under these circum- stances it wiU not be unwise to make a change, the first election having been distinctly provisional.
WAGONS AND TEAMS.
A company having been organized, its first inter- est is to procure a proper outfit of transportation and supplies for the contemplated journey.
26 PRAIEIE TRAVELER.
Wagons should be of the simplest possible con- struction— strong, light, and made of well-seasoned timber, especially the wheels, as the atmosphere, in the elevated and arid region over which they have to pass, is so exceedingly dry during the summer months that, unless the wood-work is thoroughly seasoned, they will require constant repairs to pre- vent them from falhng to pieces.
Wheels made of the bois-d'arc, or Osage orange- wood, are the best for the plains, as they shrink but little, and seldom want repairing. As, however, this wood is not easily procured in the I^orthern States, white oak answers a very good purpose if well seasoned.
Spring wagons made in Concord, N'ew Hamp- shire, are used to transport passengers, and the mails upon some of the routes across the plams, and they are said, by those who have used them, to be much superior to any others. They are made of the close-grained oak that grows in a high northern latitude, and well seasoned.
The pole of the wagon should have a jomt where it enters the hounds, to prevent the weight from coming upon it and breakmg the hounds in pass- ing short and abrupt holes in the road.
The perch or coupling-pole should be shifting or movable, as, in the event of the loss of a wheel, an axle, or other accident rendering it necessary to abandon the wagon, a temporary cart may be con- structed out of the remaining portion. The tu'es
WAGONS A]tfD TEAMS. 27
should be examined just before commencing the journey, and, if not perfectly snug, reset.
One of the chief causes of accidents to carriages upon the plains arises from the nuts coming off from the numerous bolts that secure the running gear- ing. To prevent this, the ends of all the bolts should be riveted ; it is seldom necessary to take them off, and when this is required the ends of the bolts may easily be filed away.
Wagons with six mules should never, on a long journey over the prairies, be loaded with over 2000 l^ounds, unless grain is transported, when an ad- ditional thousand pounds may be taken, provided it is fed out daily to the team. When grass consti- tutes the only forage, 2000 jDOunds is deemed a suf- ficient load. I regard our government wagons as unnecessarily heavy for six mules. There is sufii- cient material in them to sustain a burden of 4000 pounds, but they are seldom loaded with more than half that weight. Every wagon should be furnish- ed with substantial bows and double osnaburg cov- ers, to protect its contents from the sun and weather.
There has been much discussion regarding the relative merits of mules and oxen for prairie travel- ing, and the question is yet far from being settled. Upon good firm roads, in a populated country, where grain can be procured, I should unquestion- ably give the preference to mules, as they travel faster, and endure the heat of summer much better than oxen; and if the journey be not over 1000
28 PEAIKIE TEAVELEK.
miles, and the grass abundant, even without grain, I think mules would be preferable. But when the march is to extend 1500 or 2000 miles, or over a rough sandy or muddy road, I believe young oxen will endure better than mules ; they wiU, if properly managed, keep in better condition, and perform the journey in an equally brief sjoace of time. Besides, they are much more economical, a team of six mules costing six hundred dollars, while an eight-ox team only costs upon the frontier about two hund- red dollars. Oxen are much less liable to be stampeded and driven off by Indians, and can be pursued and overtaken by horsemen ; and, finally, they can, if necessary, be used for beef.
In Africa oxen are used as saddle animals, and it is said that they perform good service in this way. This will probably be regarded by our people as a very undignified and singular method of locomotion, but, in the absence of any other means of transj^ort- ation upon a long journey, a saddle-ox might be found serviceable.
Andersson, in his work on Southwestern Africa, says : " A short strong stick, of peculiar shape, is forced through the cartilage of the nose of the ox, and to either end of this stick is attached (in bridle fashion) a tough leathern thong. From the extreme tenderness of the nose he is now more easily man- aged." " Hans presented me with an ox called ' Spring,' which I afterward rode upward of two thousand miles. On the day of our departm*e he
WAGONS AND TEAMS. 29
mounted us all on oxen, and a curious sight it was to see some of the men take their seats who had never before ridden on ox-back. It is impossible to guide an ox as one would guide a horse, for in the attempt to do so you would instantly jerk the stick out of his nose, which at once deprives you of every control over the beast ; but by pulling hoth sides of the bridle at the same time, and toward the side you wish him to take, he is easily managed.* Your seat is not less awkward and difficult ; for the skui of the ox, unlike that of the horse, is loose, and, not- withstanding your saddle may be tightly girthed, you keep rocking to and fro like a child in a cradle. A few days, however, enables a person to acquire a certain steadiness, and long habit will do the rest."
" Ox traveling, when once a man becomes accus- tomed to it, is not so disagreeable as might be ex- pected, particularly if one succeeds in obtaining a tractable animal. On emergencies, an ox can be made to proceed at a tolerable quick pace; for, though his walk is only about three miles an hour at an average, he may be made to perform double that distance in the same time. Mr. Galton once accomplished 24 miles in four hours, and that, too, through heavy sand !"
Cows will be fomid very useful upon long jour- neys when the rate of travel is slow, as they furnish milk, and in emergencies they may be worked in
* A ring instead of the stick put through the cartilage of the nose would obviate this difficulty. — Author.
30 ' PRAIEIE TRAVELER.
wagons. I once saw a small cow yoked beside a large ox, and driven about six hundred miles attach- ed to a loaded wagon, and she performed her part equally well with the ox. It has been by no means an unusual thing for emigrant travelers to work cows in their teams.
The inhabitants of Pembina, on Red River, work a single ox harnessed in shafts like a horse, and they transport a thousand pounds in a rude cart made entirely of wood, without a particle of iron. One man drives and takes the entire charge of eight or ten of these teams upon long journeys. This is cer- tainly a very economical method of transportation.
STORES AND PROVISIONS.
Supplies for a march should be put up in the most secure, compact, and portable shape.
Bacon should be packed in strong sacks of a hund- red pounds to each ; or, in very hot climates, put in boxes and surrounded with bran, which in a great measure prevents the fat from melting away.
If pork be used, in order to avoid transporting about forty per cent, of useless weight, it should be taken out of the barrels and packed like the bacon ; then so placed in the bottom of the wagons as to keep it cool. The pork, if well cured, will keep sev- eral months in this way, but bacon is preferable.
Flour should be packed in stout double canvas sacks well sewed, a hundred pounds in each sack.
Butter may be preserved by boiling it thoroughly,
STOKES AND PROVISIONS. 31
and skimming off the scum as it rises to the top un- til it is quite clear like oil. It is then placed in tin canisters and soldered up. This mode of preserv- ing butter has been adopted in the hot climate of southern Texas, and it is found to keep sweet for a great length of time, and its flavor is but little im- paired by the process.
Sugar may be well secured in India-rubber or gutta-percha sacks, or so placed in the wagon as not to risk getting wet.
Desiccated or dried vegetables are almost equal to the fresh, and are put up in such a compact and portable form as easily to be transported over the plains. They have been extensively used in the Crimean war, and by our own army in Utah, and have been very generally approved. They are pre- pared by cutting the fresh vegetables into thin slices and subjecting them to a very powerful press, which removes the juice and leaves a soHd cake, which, after having been thoroughly dried in an oven, becomes almost as hard as a rock. A small piece of this, about half the size of a man's hand, when boiled, swells up so as to fill a vegetable dish, and is sufficient for four men. It is believed that the antiscorbutic properties of vegetables are not im- paired by desiccation, and they will keep for years if not exposed to dampness. Canned vegetables are very good for campaigning, but are not so port- able as when put up in the other form. The desic- cated vegetables used in our army have been pre- pared by Chollet and Co., 46 Rue Richer, Paris.
32 PEAIRIE TEAVELEE.
There is an agency for them in Xew York. I re- gard these compressed vegetables as the best prep- aration for prairie travehng that has yet been dis- covered. A single ration weighs, before being boiled, only an omice, and a cubic yard contains 16,000 rations. In making up their outfit for the plains, men are very prone to overload their teams with a great variety of useless articles. It is a good rule to carry nothing more than is absolutely neces- sary for use upon the journey. One can not exjoect, with the limited allowance of transportation that emigrants usually have, to indulge in luxuries upon such expeditions, and articles for use in California can be purchased there at less cost than that of overland transport.
The allowance of provisions for men in marching should be much greater than when they take no exercise. The army ration I have always found in- sufficient for soldiers who perform hard service, yet it is ample for them when in quarters.
The following table shows the amount of subsist- ence consumed per day by each man of Dr. Rae's party, in his spring journey to the Arctic regions of North America in 1854 :
Pemmican 1.25 lbs.
Biscuit 0.25 "
Edward's presen-ed potatoes 0.10 "
Flour 0.33 "
Tea 0.03 "
Sugar 0.14 "
G rcasc or alcohol, for cookiug 0. 25 "
^.35 ibo.
STOEES AND PROVISIONS. 33
This allowance of a little over two pounds of the most nutritious food was found barely sufficient to subsist the men in that cold chmate.
The peinniican, which constitutes almost the en- tire diet of the Fur Company's men ia the N'orth- west, is prepared as follows : The buffalo meat is cut into thin flakes, and hung up to dry in the sun or before a slow fire ; it is then pounded between two stones and reduced to a powder ; this powder is placed in a bag of the animaPs hide, with the hair on the outside ; melted grease is then pom'ed into it, and the bag sewn up. It can be eaten raw, and many prefer it so. Mixed with a httle flour and boiled, it is a very wholesome and exceedmgiy nu- tritious food, and will keep fresh for a long time.
I would ad\ise all persons who travel for any considerable time through a country where they can procure no vegetables to carry with them some antiscorbutics, and if they can not transport desic- cated or canned vegetables, citric acid answers a good purpose, and is very portable. When mixed with sugar and water, with a few drops of the es- sence of lemon, it is difficult to distinguish it from lemonade. Wild onions are excellent as antiscor- butics ; also wild grapes and greens. An infusion of hemlock leaves is also said to be an antidote to scur^^.
The most portable and simple preparation of sub- sistence that I know of, and which is used exten- sively by the Mexicans and Indians ^ is called '' cold C
34 PEAIEIE TEAVELER.
flour.'''' It is made by parching corn, and pounding it in a mortar to the consistency of coarse meal ; a little sugar and cinnamon added makes it quite palatable. When the traveler becomes hungry or thirsty, a little of the flour is mixed with water and drunk. It is an excellent article for a traveler who desires to go the greatest length of time upon the smallest amount of trans23ortation. It is said that half a bushel is sufficient to subsist a man thirty days.
Persons undergoing severe labor, and driven to great extremities for food, will derive sustenance from various sources that would never occur to them under ordinary circumstances. In passing over the Rocky Mountains during the winter of 1857-8, our supplies of provisions were entirely consumed eighteen days before reachmg the first settlements in New Mexico, and Ave were obliged to resort to a variety of exj^edients to supply the deficiency. Our poor mules were fast failing and dropping down from exhaustion in the deep snows, and our only dependence for the means of sustain- mg life was upon these starved animals as they be- came unserviceable and could go no farther. We had no salt, sugar, cofiee, or tobacco, Avhich, at a time when men are performing the severest labor that the human system is capable of enduring, was a great privation. In this destitute condition we found a substitute for tobacco in the bark of the rod willow, which grows upon many of the mount-
STORES AND PEOVISIONS. 35
ain streams in that vicinity. The outer bark is first removed with a knife, after which the inner bark is scraped up into ridges around the sticks, and held in the fire until it is thoroughly roasted, when it is taken ofi" the stick, pulverized in the hand, and is ready for smoking. It has the nar- cotic properties of the tobacco, and is quite agreea- ble to the taste and smell. The sumach leaf is also used by the Indians in the same way, and has a similar taste to the w^illow bark. A decoction of the dried wild or horse mint, which we found abundant under the snow, was quite palatable, and answered instead of coffee. It dries up in that climate, but does not lose its flavor. We suffered ^greatly for the want of salt; but, by burning the outside of our mule steaks, and sprinkling a little gunpowder upon them, it did not require a very extensive stretch of the imagination to fancy the presence of both salt and pepper. We tried the meat of horse, colt, and mules, all of which were m a starved condition, and of course not very tender, juicy, or nutritious. We consumed the enormous amount of from five to six pounds of this meat per man daily, but continued to grow weak and thin, until, at the expiration of twelve days, we were able to perform but little labor, and were continually craving for fat meat.
The allowance of provisions for each grown per- son, to make the journey from the Missouri River to California, should sufiice for 110 days. The fol-
36 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
lowing is deemed requisite, viz.: 150 lbs. of flour, or its equivalent in hard bread ; 25 lbs. of bacon or pork, and enough fresh beef to be driven on the hoof to make up the meat component of the ration; 15 lbs. of coffee, and 25 lbs. of sugar; also a quan- tity of saleratus or yeast j^owders for making bread, and salt and pepper.
These are the chief articles of subsistence neces- sary for the trij), and they should be used with econ- omy, reserving a good portion for the western half of the journey. Heretofore many of the Cahfor- nia emigrants have improvidently exhausted their stocks of provisions before reaching their journey's end, and have, in many cases, been obliged to pay the most exorbitant prices in making uj) the de- ficiency.
It is true that if persons choose to j^ass through Salt Lake City, and the Mormons happen to be in an amiable mood, supplies may sometimes be pro- cured from them ; but those who have visited them well know how little reliance is to be placed upon their hospitality or spirit of accommodation.
I once traveled with a party of New Yorkers en route for California. They were perfectly ignorant of every thing relating to this kind of campaigning, and had overloaded their wagons with almost every thmg except the very articles most important and necessary ; the consequence w^as, that they exhaust- ed their teams, and w^ere obliged to throw away the greater part of their loading. Tliev soon learned
CLOTHING. 37
that Champagne, East India sweetmeats, olives, etc., etc., were not the most useful articles for a prairie tour.
CLOTHING.
A suitable dress for prairie traveling is of great import to health and comfort. Cotton or linen fab- rics do not sufficiently protect the body against the direct rays of the sun at midday, nor against rains or sudden changes of temperature. Wool, being a non-conductor, is the best material for this mode of locomotion, and should always be adopted for the plains. The coat should be short and stout, the shirt of red or blue flannel, such as can be found in almost all the shops on the frontier : this, in warm Aveather, answers for an outside garment. The pants should be of thick and soft woolen material, and it is well to have them re-enforced on the inside, where they come m contact with the saddle, with soft buckskin, which makes them more durable and com- fortable.
Woolen socks and stout boots, coming up well at the knees, and made large, so as to admit the pants, will be found the best for horsemen, and they guard against rattlesnake bites.
In traveling through deep snow during very cold weather in winter, moccasins are preferable to boots or shoes, as being more pliable, and allowing a freer circulation of the blood. In crossing the Rocky Mountains in the winter, the weather being intense-
38 PEAIEIE TEAVELEE.
ly cold, I wore two pairs of woolen socks, and a square piece of thick blanket sufficient to coyer the feet and ankles, over which were drawn a pair of thick buckskm moccasms, and the whole enveloped in a pair of buffalo-skin boots with the hair inside, made open in the front and tied with buckskin strings. At the same time I wore a pair of elkskin pants, which most effectually prevented the air from penetrating to the skin, and made an excellent de- fense against brush and thorns.
My men, who were dressed in the regulation cloth- ing, wore out their pants and shoes before we reach- ed the summit of the mountains, and many of them had their feet badly frozen in consequence. They mended their shoes with pieces of leather cut from the saddle-skirts as long as they lasted, and, when this material was gone, they covered the entire shoe with green beeve or mule hide, drawn together and sewed upon the top, with the hair inside, which pro- tected the upper as well as the sole leather. The sewing was done with an awl and buckskin strings. These simple expedients contributed greatly to the comfort of the party ; and, indeed, I am by no means sure that they did not, in our straitened condition, without the transportation necessary for carrying disabled men, save the lives of some of them. With- out the awl and buckskins we should have been un- able to have repaired the shoes. They should never be forgotten in making up the outfit for a prairie expedition.
CLOTHING.
39
We also experienced great inconvenience and pain by the reflection of the sun's rays from the snow upon our eyes, and some of the party became nearly snow-blind. Green or blue glasses, inclosed in a wire net-work, are an effectual protection to the eyes ; but, in the absence of these, the skin around the eyes and upon the nose should be blackened with wet powder or charcoal, which will afford great relief
In the summer season shoes are much better for footmen than boots, as they are lighter, and do not cramp the ankles ; the soles should be broad, so as to allow a square, firm tread, without distorting or pinching the feet.
The following list of articles is deemed a suffi- cient outfit for one man upon a three months' expe- dition, viz. :
2 blue or red flannel overshirts, open in front, with buttons. 2 woolen undershirts. 2 pairs thick cotton drawers. 4 pairs woolen socks. 2 pairs cotton socks. 4 colored silk handkerchiefs.
2 pairs stout shoes, for footmen. 1 pair boots, for horsemen.
1 pair shoes, for horsemen.
3 towels.
1 gutta percha poncho. 1 broad-brimmed hat of soft felt.
1 comb and brush.
2 tooth-brushes.
1 pound Castile soap.
3 pounds bar soap for washing clothes.
1 belt-knife and small whet- stone.
Stout linen thread, large nee- dles, a bit of beeswax, a few buttons, paper of pins^ and a thimble, all contained in a small buckskin or stout cloth bag.
The foregoing articles, with the coat and over- coat, complete the wardrobe.
40 TRAIKIE TRAVELEK.
CAMP EQUIPAGE.
The bedding for each person should consist of two blankets, a comforter, and a pillow, and a gutta percha or painted canvas cloth to spread beneath the bed npon the ground, and to contain it when rolled up for transportation.
Every mess of six or eight persons will require a wrought-iron camp kettle, large enough for boiling meat and making soup ; a coffee-j)Ot and cups of heavy tin, with the handles riveted on ; tin plates, frying and bake pans of wrought iron, the latter for baking bread and roasting coffee. Also a mess pan of heavy tin or wrought iron for mixing bread and other cuHnary purposes; knives, forks, and spoons ; an extra camp kettle ; tin or gutta percha bucket for water — wood, being liable to shrink and fall to pieces, is not deemed suitable ; an axe, hatch- et, and spade will also be needed, with a mallet for driving picket-pins. Matches should be carried in bottles and corked tight, so as to exclude the moisture.
A little blue mass, quinine, opium, and some ca- thartic medicine, put uj) in doses for adults, will suffice for the medicine-chest.
Each ox wagon should be provided with a cover- ed tar-bucket, filled with a mixture of tar or resin and grease, two bows extra, six S's, and six open links for repairing chains. Every set of six wagons should have a tongue, coupling pole, king-bolt, and pair of hounds extra.
ARMS. 41
Every set of six mule wagons should be furnisliecl with five pairs of hames, two double trees, four whipple-trees, and two pairs of lead bars extra.
Two lariats will be needed for every horse and mule, as one generally wears out before reaching the end of a long journey. They will be found use- ful in crossing deep streams, and in letting wagons down steep hills and mountains ; also in repairing broken wagons. Lariats made of hemp are the best.
One of the most indispensable articles to the out- fit of the prairie traveler is buckskin. For repair- ing harness, saddles, bridles, and numerous other purposes of daily necessity, the awl and buckskin will be found in constant requisition.
ARMS.
Every man who goes into the Indian country should be armed with a rifle and revolver, and he should never, either in camp or out of it, lose sight of them. When not on the march, they should be placed in such a position that they can be seized at an instant's warning ; and when moving about out- side the camp, the revolver should invariably be worn in the belt, as the person does not know at what moment he may have use for it.
A great diversity of opinion obtains regarding the kind of rifle that is the most efiicient and best adapted to Indian warfare, and the question is per- haps as yet very far from bemg settled to the satis-
42 PEAIEIE TEAVELER.
faction of all. A large majority of men prefer the breech-loading arm, but there are those who still adhere tenaciously to the old-fashioned muzzle-load- ing rifle as preferable to any of the modern inven- tions. Among these may be mentioned the border hunters and mountaineers, who can not be persuad- ed to use any other than the Hawkins rifle, for the reason that they know nothing about the merits of any others. My own experience has forced me to the conclusion that the breech-loading arm possess- es great advantages over the muzzle-loading, for the reason that it can be charged and fired with much greater rapidity.
Colt's revolving pistol is very generally admitted, both in Europe and America, to be the most effi- cient arm of its kind known at the present day. As the same principles are mvolved in the fabrication of his breech-loading rifle as are found m the pistol, the conviction to me is irresistible that, if one arm is worthy of consideration, the other is equally so. For my own part, I look upon Colt's new patent rifle as a most excellent arm for border service. It gives six shots in more rapid succession than any other rifle I know of, and these, if properly expend- ed, are oftentimes sufficient to decide a contest ; moreover, it is the most rehable and certam weapon to fire that I have ever used, and I can not resist the force of my conviction that, if I were alone upon the prairies, and expected an attack from a body of
AEMS. 43
Indians, I am not acquainted with any arm I would as soon have in my hands as this.
The army and navy revolvers have both been used in our army, but the officers are not united in opin- ion in regard to their relative merits. I prefer the large army size, for reasons which will be given here- after.
44 PRAIRIE TRAVELER,
CHAPTER n.
Marching. — Treatment of Animals. — Water. — Different meth- ods of finding and purifying it. — Journadas. — Methods of crossing them. — Advance and Rear Guards. — Selection of Camp. — Sanitary Considerations. — Dr. Jackson's Report. — Picket Guards. — Stampedes. — How to prevent them.^-Cor- raling Wagons.
MARCHING.
The success of a long expedition through an un- populated country depends mainly on the care tak- en of the animals, and the manner in which they are driven, herded, and guarded. If they are broken down or lost, every thing must be sacrificed, and the party becomes perfectly helpless.
The great error into which inexperienced travel- ers are liable to fall, and which probably occasions more suffering and disaster than almost any thing else, lies in overworking their cattle at the com- mencement of the journey. To obviate this, short and easy drives should be made until the teams be- come habituated to their work, and gradually in- ured to this particular method of traveling. If ani- mals are overloaded and overworked when they first start out into the prairies, especially if they have recently been taken from grain, they soon fall away, and give out before reaching the end of the journey.
MARCHING. 45
Grass and water are abundant and good upon the eastern portions of all the different overland routes ; animals should not, therefore, with proj^er care, fall away in the least before reaching the mountains, as west of them are long stretches where grass and water are scarce, and it requires the full amount of strength and vigor of animals in good condition to endure the fatigues and hard labor attendant upon the passage of these deserts. Drivers should be closely watched, and never, unless absolutely neces- sary, permitted to beat their animals, or to force them out of a walk, as this will soon break down the best teams. Those teamsters who make the least use of the whip invariably keep their annuals in the best condition. Unless the drivers are check- ed at the outset, they are very apt to fall into the habit of flogging their teams. It is not only wholly unnecessary but cruel, and should never be tolerated.
In traveling with ox teams in the summer season, great benefit will be derived from making early marches ; starting w^ith the dawn, and making a " nooning" during the heat of the day, as oxen suf- fer much from the heat of the sun in midsummer. These noon halts should, if possible, be so arranged as to be near grass and water, where the animals can improve their time in grazing. When it gets cool they may be hitched to the wagons again, and the journey continued in the afternoon. Six- teen or eighteen miles a day may thus be made with- out injury to the beasts, and longer drives can never
46 PKAIEIE TEAVELER.
be expedient, unless in order to reacli grass or wa- ter. When the requisites for encamping can not be found at the desired intervals, it is better for the animals to make a very long drive than to encamp without water or grass. The noon halt in such cases may be made without Avater, and the evening drive lengthened.
WATER.
The scarcity of water upon some of the routes across the plains occasionally exposes the traveler to intense suffering, and renders it a matter of much importance for him to learn the best methods of guarding against the disasters liable to occur to men and animals in the absence of this most neces- sary element.
In mountainous districts water can generally be found either in springs, the dry beds of streams, or in holes in the rocks, where they are sheltered from rapid evaporation. For example, in the Hueco tanks, thirty miles east of El Paso, New Mexico, upon the Fort Smith road, where there is an im- mense reservoir in a cave, water can always be found. This reservoir receives the drainage of a mountain.
During a season of the year when there are oc- casional showers, water will generally be found in low places where there is a substratum of clay, but after the dry season has set in these pools evap- orate, and it is necessary to dig wells. The lowest
WATEE. 4Y
spots should be selected for this purpose when the grass is green and the surface earth moist.
In searching for water along the dry sandy beds of streams, it is well to try the earth with a stick or ramrod, and if this indicates moisture water will generally be obtained by excavation. Streams often sink in hght and porous sand, and sometimes make their appearance again lower down, where the bed is more tenacious; but it is a rule with prairie travelers, in searching for water in a sandy country, to ascend the streams, and the nearer their sources are approached the more water will be found in a dry season.
Where it becomes necessary to sink a well in a stream the bed of which is quicksand, a flour-bar- rel, perforated with small holes, should be used as a curb, to prevent the sand from caving in. The barrel must be forced down as the sand is removed ; and when, as is often the case, there is an under- current through the sand, the well will be contin- ually filled with water.
There are many indications of water known to old campaigners, although none of them are abso- lutely hifallible. The most certain of them are deep green cottonwood or willow trees growing in de- pressed localities ; also flags, water - rushes, tall green grass, etc.
The fresh tracks and trails of animals converging toward a common centre, and the flight of birds and water-fowl toward the same points, will also
48 PEAIEIE TEAVELEE.
lead to water. In a section frequented by deer or mustangs, it may be certain that water is not far distant, as these animals drink daily, and they wiU not remain long in a locality after the water has dried up. Deer generally go to water during the middle of the day, but birds toward evening.
A supply of drinking water may be obtained during a shower from the drippings of a tent, or by suspending a cloth or blanket by the four corners and hanging a small weight to the centre, so as to allow all the rain to run toward one point, from whence it drops into a vessel beneath. India-rub- ber, gutta-percha, or painted canvas cloths answer a very good purpose for catching water durmg a rain, but they should be previously well washed, to prevent them from imparting a bad taste.
When there are heavy dews water may be col- lected by spreading out a blanket with a stick at- tached to one end, tying a rope to it, dragging it over the grass, and wringing out the water as it accumulates. In some parts of Australia this meth- od is practiced.
In traversing the country upon the head waters of Red River during the summer of 1852, we suf- fered most severely from thirst, having nothmg but the acrid and bitter waters from the river, which, issuing from a gypsum formation, was highly charged with salts, and, when taken into the stom- ach, did not quench thirst in the slightest degree, but^ on the contrary, produced a most pamful and
WATER. 49
burning sensation, accompanied witli diarrhoea. During the four days that we were compelled to drink this water the thermometer rose to 104° m the shade, and the only relief we found was from bathing in the river.
The use of water is a matter of habit, very mudhi withm our control, as by practice we may discipline ourselves so as to require but a small amount. Some persons, for example, who place no restraint upon their appetites, will, if they can get it, drink water twenty times a day, while others will not perhaps drink more than once or twice during the same time. I have found a very effectual prevent- ive to thirst by drinking a large quantity of water before breakfast, and, on feeling thirsty on the march, chewing a small green twig or leaf.
Water taken from stagnant pools, charged with putrid vegetable matter and animalculge, would be very likely to generate fevers and dysenteries if taken into the stomach without purification. It should therefore be thoroughly boiled, and all the scum removed from the surface as it rises; this clarifies it, and by mixing powdered charcoal with it the disinfecting process is perfected. Water may also be purified by placing a piece of alum in the end of a stick that has been split, and stirring it around in a bucket of water. Charcoal and the leaves of the j^rickly pear are also used for the same purpose. I have recently seen a compact and port- able filter, made of charcoal, which clarifies the wa- D
60 PEAIEIE TEAVELEE.
ter very effectually, and draws it off on the siphon principle. It can be obtained at 85 West Street, 'Ne^Y York, for one dollar and a half. Water may be partially filtered in a muddy pond by taking a barrel and boring the lower half full of holes, then filling it up with grass or moss above the upper holes, after which it is placed in the pond with the top above the surface. The water filters through the grass or moss, and rises in the barrel to a level with the pond. Travelers frequently drink muddy water by placing a cloth or handkerchief over the mouth of a cup to catch the larger particles of dii't and anunalculse.
Water may be cooled so as to be quite palatable by wrapping cloths around the vessels containing it, wetting them, and hanging them in the air, where a rapid evaporation will be j^roduced. Some of the frontier-men use a leathern sack for carrying water ; this is porous, and allows the necessary evaporation without wetting.
The Arabs also use a leathern bottle, which they call zemsemiyah. When they are en route they hang it on the shady side of a camel, where the evaporation keeps the water continually cool.
No expedition should ever set out mto the plains without being supphed with the means for carrying water, especially in an unknown region. If wooden kegs are used they must frequently be looked after, and soaked, m order that they may not shrink and fall to pieces. Men, in marching in a hot climate,
WATEK. 51
throw off a great amount of perspiration from the skin, and require a corresponding quantity of water to supply the deficiency, and imless they get this they suffer greatly. When a party makes an ex- pedition into a desert section, where there is a probability of finding no water, and intend to re- turn over the same track, it is well to carry water as far as convenient, and bury it in the ground for use on the return trip.
" Captain Sturt, when he explored AustraHa, took a tank in his cart, which burst, and, besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he was enabled to face a desert country with a success which no traveler had ever attained to. For instance, when returning homeward, the water was found to be drying up from the country on all sides of him. He was at a pool, and the next stage was 118 miles, at the end of which it was doubtful if there remained any water. It was necessary to send to reconnoitre, and to furnish the messenger Avith means of returning should the pool be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and, filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), sent it by an ox dray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to re- turn. Shortly after he dispatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water ; the horse and man were to drink at the hide and go on. Thus they had 36 gallons to su^^ply them for a journey of 176 miles, or six days at 30 miles a day, at the close of which they would return to the ox hide —
62 PRAIEIE TRAVELEK.
sleeping, in fact, five nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, well-driven horse could do, even in the hottest climate."*
JOURNADAS.
In some localities 50 or 60 miles, and even greater distances, are frequently traversed without water; these long stretches are called by the Mexicans '•'• journadas^^ or day's journeys. There is one in l!^ew Mexico called Journada del Muerto^ which is 784 miles in length, Avhere, in a dry season, there is not a drop of water ; yet, with proper care, this drive can be made with ox or mule teams, and Avithout loss or injury to the animals.
On arriving at the last camping-ground before entering upon the journada, all the animals should be as well rested and refreshed as possible. To m- sure this, they must be turned out upon the best grass that can be found, and allowed to eat and drmk as much as they desire during the entire halt. Should the weather be very warm, and the teams composed of oxen, the march should not be resumed until it begins to cool in the afternoon. They should be carefully watered just j)revious to being hitched up and started out upon the journada, the water-kegs having been previously filled. The drive is then commenced, and continued during the entire night, with 10 or 15 minutes rest every two hours. About daylight a halt should be made, and * F. Galton's Art of Travel, p. 17 and 18.
JOUENADAS. 53
the animals immediately tm-ned out to graze for two hours, during which time, especially if there is dew upon the grass, they will have become consid- erably refreshed, and may be put to the wagons again and driven until the heat becomes oppressive toward noon, when they are again turned out upon a spot where the grass is good, and, if possible, where there are shade trees. About four o'clock P.M. they are again started, and the march con- tinued into the night, and as long as they can be driven without suffering. If, however, there should be dew, which is seldom the case on the plains, it would be well to turn out the animals several times during the second night, and by morning, if they are in good condition, the journada of VO or 80 miles will have been passed without any great amount of suflering. I am supposing, in this case, that the road is firm and free from sand.
Many persons have been under the impression that animals, in traversing the plains, would perform better and keep in better condition by allowing them to graze in the morning before commencing the day's march, which involves the necessity of making late starts, and driving during the heat of the day. The same persons have been of the opin- ion that animals will graze only at particular hours ; that the remainder of the day must be allowed them for rest and sleep, and that, unless these rules be observed, they would not thrive. This opinion is, however, erroneous, as animals will in a few days
54 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
adapt themselves to any circumstances, so far as regards their hom-s of labor, rest, and refreshment. If they have been accustomed to work at particular periods of the day, and the order of things is sud- denly reversed, the working hours changed into hours of rest, and vice versa^ they may not do as well for a short time, but they mil soon accustom themselves to the change, and eat and rest as well as before. By maldng early drives during the summer months the heat of the day is avoided, whereas, I repeat, if allowed to graze before start- ing, the march can not commence until it grows warm, when animals, especially oxen, will suffer greatly from the heat of the sun, and will not do as well as when the other plan is pursued.
Oxen upon a long journey will sometimes wear down their hoofs and become lame. When this occurs, a thick piece of raw hide wi'apped around the foot and tied firmly to the leg will obviate the difficulty, provided the weather is not wet ; for if so, the shoe soon wears out. Mexican and Indian horses and mules will make long journeys without being shod, as their hoofs are tough and elastic, and wear away very gradually ; they will, however, in time become very smooth, making it difficult for them to travel upon grass.
A train of wagons should always be kept closed upon a march ; and if, as often happens, a particular wagon gets out of order and is obliged to halt, it should be turned out of the road, to let the others
JOURNADAS. 55
pass while the injury is being repaired. As soon as the broken wagon is in order, it should fall into the line wherever it happens to be. In the event of a wagon breaking down so as to requu-e import- ant repairs, men should be immediately dispatched with the necessary tools and materials, which should be placed in the train where they can readily be got at, and a guard should be left to escort the wagon to camp after having been repaired. If, however, the damage be so serious as to require any great length of time to repair it, the load should be trans- ferred to other wagons, so that the team which is left behmd will be able to travel rapidly and over- take the train.
If the broken wagon is a poor one, and there be abundance of better ones, the accident bemg such as to involve much delay for its repair, it may be wise to abandon it, taking from it such parts as may possibly be wanted in repairing other wagons.
ADVANCE AND REAR GUARDS.
A few men, well mounted, should constitute the advance and rear guards for each train of wagons passing through the Indian country. Their duty will be to keep a vigilant look-out in all directions, and to reconnoitre places where Indians would be likely to He in ambush. Should hostile Indians be discovered, the fact should be at once reported to the commander, who (if he anticipates an attack) will rapidly form his wagons into a circle or " cor-
56 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
ral^'' with the ammals toward the centre, and the men on the inside, with their arms in readiness to repel an attack from without. If these arrange- ments be properly attended to, few parties of In- dians will venture to make an attack, as they are well aware that some of their warriors might pay with their lives the forfeit of such indiscretion.
I know an instance where one resolute man, pur- sued for several days by a large party of Comanches on the Santa Fe trace, defended himself by dis- mounting and pointmg his rifle at the foremost whenever they came near him, which always had the effect of turning them back. This was repeated so often that the Indians finally abandoned the pur- suit, and left the traveler to pursue his journey without farther molestation. During all this time he did not discharge his rifle ; had he done so he would doubtless have been killed.
SELECTION OF CAMPS.
The security of animals, and, indeed, the general safety of a party, in traveling through a country occupied by hostile Indians, depends greatly upon the judicious selection of camps. One of the most important considerations that should influence the choice of a locality is its capability for defense. If the camp be pitched beside a stream, a concave bend, where the Avater is deep, with a soft alluvial bed inclosed by higli and abrupt banks, will be the most defensible, and all the more should tlie con-
SELECTION OF CAMPS. 57
cavity form a peninsula. The advantages of such a position are obvious to a soldier's eye, as that part of the encampment inclosed by the stream is natu- rally secure, and leaves only one side to be defended. The concavity of the bend will enable the defending party to cross its fire in case of attack from the ex- posed side. The bend of the stream will also form an excellent corral in w^hich to secure animals from a stampede, and thereby diminish the number of sentmels needful around the camp. In herding ani- mals at night within the bend of a stream, a spot should be selected where no clumps of brush grow on the side where the animals are posted. If thick- ets of brush can not be avoided, sentinels should be placed near them, to guard agamst Indians, Avho might take advantage of this cover to steal animals, or shoot them down with arrows, before their pres- ence were known.
In camping away from streams, it is advisable to select a position in which one or more sides of the encampment shall rest upon the crest of an abrupt hill or bluff. The prairie Indians make their cameos upon the summits of the hills, whence they can see in all directions, and thus avoid a surj^rise.
The line of tents should be pitched on that side of the camp most exposed to attack, and sentinels so posted that they may give alarm in time for the main body to rally and prepare for defense.
58 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
SANITAKY CONSIDERATIONS.
When camping near rivers and lakes surrounded by large bodies of timber and a luxuriant vegeta- tion, which produces a great amount of decomposi- tion and consequent exhalations of malaria, it is im- portant to ascertain what localities Avill be the least hkely to generate disease, and to affect the sanitary condition of men occupying them.
This subject has been thoroughly examined by Dr. Robert Johnson, Inspector General of Hospitals in the English army in 1845 ; and, as his conclusions are deduced from enlarged experience and extended research, they should have great weight. I shall therefore make no apology for introducing here a few extracts from his interesting report touching upon this subject :
" It is consonant with the experience of military people, in all ages and in all countries, that camp diseases most abound near the muddy banks of large rivers, near swamps and ponds, and on grounds which have been recently stripped of their Avoods. The fact is precise, but it has been set aside to make way for an opinion. It was assumed, about half a century since, by a celebrated army physician, that camp diseases originated from causes of putre- faction, and that putrefaction is connected radically with a stagnant condition of the air.
" As streams of air usually proceed along rivers with more certainty and force than in other places,
SANITARY CONSIDERATIONS. 69
and as there is evidently a more certain movement of air, that is, more wind on oj^en grounds than among woods and thickets, this sole considera- tion, without any regard to experience, influenced opinion, gave currency to the destructive maxim that the banks of rivers, open groimds, and exposed heights are the most eligible situations for the en- campment of troops. They are the best ventilated ; they must, if the theory be true, be the most healthy.
" The fact is the reverse ; but, demonstrative as the fact may be, fashion has more mfluence than multiplied examples of fact experimentally proved. Encampments are still formed m the vicinity of swamps, or on grounds which are newly cleared of their woods, in obedience to theory, and contrary to fact.
" It is prudent, as now said, in selecting ground for encampment^ to avoid the immediate vicinity of swamps and rivers. The air is there noxious ; but, as its influence thence originating does not extend beyond a certain limit, it is a matter of some importance to ascertain to what distance it does extend ; because, if circumstances do not per- mit that the encampment be removed out of its reach, prudence directs that remedies be applied to weaken the force of its pernicious impressions.
" The remedies consist in the interposition of ris- ing grounds, woods, or such other impediments as serve to break the current in its progress from the
60 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
noxious source. It is an obvious fact, that the noxious cause, or the exhalation in which it is en- veloped, ascends as it traverses the adjacent plain, and that its impression is augmented by the adven- titious force with which it strikes upon the subject of its action.
" It is thus that a position of three hundi*ed paces from the margin of a swamp, on a level with the swamp itself, or but moderately elevated, is less unhealthy than one at six hundred on the same line of direction on an exposed height. The cause here strikes fully in its ascent ; and as the atmosphere has a more varied temperature, and the succussions of the air are more irreorular on the heis^ht than on the plain, the impression is more forcible, and the noxious effect more strongly marked. In accord with this principle, it is almost uniformly true, coeteris paribus^ that diseases are more common, at least more violent, in broken, irregular, and hilly countries, where the temperature is Uable to sudden changes, and where blasts descend with fury from the mountains, than in large and extensive inclined plains under the action of equal and gentle breezes only.
" From this fact it becomes an object of the first consideration, in selecting ground for encampment, to guard against the impression of strong winds on their own account, independently of their proceed- ing from swamps, rivers, and noxious soils.
" It is proved l)y experience, in armies as in civil
SANITAEY CONSIDERATIONS. 61
life, that injury does not often result from simple wetting with rain when the person is fairly exposed in the open air, and habitually inured to the con- tingencies of weather. Irregular troops, which act in the advanced line of armies, and which have no other shelter from weather than a hedge or tree, rarely experience sickness — never, at least, the sick- ness which proceeds from contagion; hence it is inferred that the shelter of tents is not necessary for the preservation of health. Irregular troOps, with contingent shelter only, are comparatively healthy, while sickness often rages with violence in the same scenae, among those who have all the j^ro- tection against the inclemencies of weather which can be furnished by canvas. The fact is verified by experience, and the cause of it is not of difficult explanation. When the earth is damp, the action of heat on its surface occasions the interior moisture to ascend. The heat of the bodies of a given num- ber of men, confined within a tent of a given dimen- sion, raises the temperature within the tent beyond the temperature of the common air outside the tent. The ascent of moisture is thus encouraged, generally by a change of temperature in the tent, and more particularly by the immediate or near contact of the heated bodies of the men with the surface of the earth. Moisture, as exhaled from the earth, is considered by observers of fact to be a cause which acts mjuriously on health. Produced artificially by the accumulation of individuals in
62 PKAIEIE TRAVELEE.
close tents, it may reasonably be supposed to pro- duce its usual effects on armies. A cause of con- tagious influence, of fatal effect, is thus generated by accumulating soldiers in close and crowded tents, under the pretext of defending them from the in- clemencies of the weather ; and hence it is that the means which are provided for the preservation of health are actually the causes of destruction of life. . " There are two causes which more evidently act upon the health of troops in the field than any other, namely, moisture exhaled direct from the surface of the earth in undue quantity, and emanations of a peculiar character arising from diseased action in the animal system in a mass of men crowded to- gether. These are principal, and they are import- ant. The noxious effects may be obviated, or rather the noxious cause will not be generated, under the following arrangement, namely, a carpet of paint- ed canvas for the floor of the tent ; a tent with a hght roof, as defense against perpendicular rain or the rays of a vertical sun ; and with side waUs of moderate height, to be employed only against driv- ing rains. To the first there can be no objection i it is useful, as preventing the exhalations of moist' ure from the surface of the earth ; it is convenient^ as always ready ; and it is economical, as less ex^ pensive than straw. It requires to be fresh painted only once a year."
The effect of crowding men together in close quarters, illy ventilated, was shown in the prisons
SAJflTARY CONSIDERATIONS. 63
of Hindostan, where at one time, when the English held sway, they had, on an average, 40,000 natives in confinement; and this unfortunate population was every year liberated by death in proportions varying from 4000 to 10,000. The annual average mortality by crowded and unventilated barracks in the English army has sometimes been enormous, as at Barrackpore, where it seldom fell far short of one tenth ; that is to say, its garrisons were every year decimated by fever or cholera, while the offi- cers and other inhabitants, who lived in well-venti- lated houses, did not find the place particularly un- healthy.
The same fact of general exemption among the officers, and complete exemption among their wives, was observed m the marching regiments, which lost by cholera from one tenth to one sixth of the enlisted men, who were packed together at night ten and twelve in a tent, with the thermometer at 96°. The dimensions of the celebrated Black Hole of Cal- cutta— where in 1756,123 prisoners out of 140 died by carbonic acid in one night — was but eighteen feet square, and with but two small windows. Most of the twenty-three who survived until morning were seized with putrid fever and died very soon afterward.
On the 1st of December, 1848, 150 deck passen- gers of the steamer Londonderry were ordered be- low by the captain and the hatches closed upon them : seventy were found dead the next morning.
64 PRAIEIE TRAVELER.
The streams which mtersect our great prairies have but a very sparse growth of Avood or vegeta- tion upon their banks, so that one of the fundament- al causes for the generation of noxious malaria does not, to any great extent, exist here, and I beHeve that persons may encamp with impunity directly upon their banks.
PICKET GUAKDS.
When a party is sufficiently strong, a picket guard sliould be stationed during the night some tAvo or three hundred yards in advance of the point which is most open to assault, and on low ground, so that an enemy approaching over the surrounding higher country can be seen agamst the sky, while the sen- tinel himself is screened from observation. These sentinels should not be allowed to keej) fires, unless they are so placed that they can not be seen from a distance.
During the day the pickets should be posted on the summits of the highest eminences in the vicinity of camp, with instructions to keep a vigilant look- out in all directions ; and, if not within hailing dis- tance, they should be instructed to give some well- understood telegraphic signals to mform those in camp wlien there is danger. For exam^Dle, should Indians be discovered approaching at a great dis- tance, they may raise their caps ui)on the muzzles of their pieces, and at the same time walk around in a circle ; Avhile, if the Indians are near and mo\ang
PICKET GUARDS. 65
rajjidly, the sentinel may swing his cap and run around rapidly in a circle. To indicate the direc- tion from which the Indians are approaching, he may direct his piece toward them, and walk in the same line of direction.
Should the pickets suddenly discover a party of Indians A^ery near, and with the apparent intention of making an attack, they should fire their pieces to give the alarm to the camp.
These telegraphic signals, when well understood and enforced, will tend greatly to facilitate the com- munication of intelligence throughout the camp, and conduce much to its security.
The picket guards should receive minute and strict orders regarding their duties under all circum- stances, and these orders should be distinctly un- derstood by every one in the camp, so that no false alarms will be created. All persons, with the ex- ception of the guards and herders, should after dark be confined to the limits of the chain of sentinels, so that, if any one is seen approaching from without these limits, it will be known that they are stran- gers.
As there will not often be occasion for any one to pass the chain of pickets during the night, it is a good rule (especially if the party is small), when a picket sentinel discovers any one lurking about his post from without, if he has not himself been seen, to quietly withdraw and report the fact to the com- mander, who can wake his men and make his ar- E
66 PRAIEIE TRAVELER.
rangements to repel an attack and protect his ani- mals. If, however, the man upon the picket has been seen, he should distinctly challenge the approaching party, and if he receives no answer, fire, and retreat to camp to report the fact.
It is of the utmost importance that picket guards should be wide awake, and allow nothing to escape their observation, as the safety of the whole camp is involved. During a dark night a man can see better himself, and is less exposed to the view of others, when in a sittmg posture than when stand- ing up or moving about. I would therefore rec- ommend this practice for night pickets.
Horses and mules (especially the latter), whose senses of hearing and smelling are probably more acute than those of almost any other animals, will discover any thing strange or unusual about camp much sooner than a man. They indicate this by turning in the direction from whence the object is approaching, holding their heads erect, projecting their ears forward, and standing in a fixed and at- tentive attitude. They exhibit the same signs of alarm when a wolf or other wild animal ajDproaches the camp ; but it is always wise, when they show fear in this manner, to be on the alert till the cause is ascertained.
Mules are very keenly sensitive to danger, and, in passing along over the prairies, they will often de- tect the proximity of strangers long before they are discovered by their riders. Nothing seems to es-
PICKET GUARDS. 67
cape their observation ; and I have heard of several instances where they have given timely notice of the approach of hostile Indians, and thus prevented stampedes.
Dogs are sometimes good sentinels, but they often sleep sound, and are not easily awakened on the ap- proach of an enemy.
In marching with large force, unless there is a guide who knows the country, a small party should always be sent in advance to search for good camp- ing-places, and these parties should be dispatched early enough to return and meet the main command in the event of not finding a camping-place within the limits of the day's march. A regiment should average upon the prairies, where the roads are good, about eighteen miles a day, but, if necessary, it can make 25 or even 30 miles. The advance party should therefore go as far as the command can march, provided the requisites for camping are not found within that distance. The article of first im- portance in campaigning is grass, the next water, and the last fuel.
It is the practice of most persons traveling with large ox trains to select their camps upon the sum- mit of a hill, where the surrounding country in all directions can be seen. Their cattle are then con- tinually within view from the camp, and can be guarded easily.
When a halt is made the wagons are " corraled," as it is called, by bringing the two front ones near
68 PEAIRIE TRAVELER.
and parallel to each other. The two next are then driven up on the outside of these, with the front Avheels of the former touching the rear wheels of the latter, the rear of the wagons turned out upon the circumference of the circle that is being formed, and so on until one half the circle is made, when the rear of the wagons are turned in to. complete the circle. An opening of about twenty yards should be left between the last two wagons for animals to pass in and out of the corral, and this may be closed with two ropes stretched between the wagons. Such a corral forms an excellent and secure barricade against Indian attacks, and a good inclosure for cattle while they are bemg yoked ; in- deed, it is indispensable.
STAMPEDES.
Inclosures are made in the same manner for horses and mules, and, in case of an attempt to stampede them, they should be driven with all possible dis- patch into the corral, where they will be perfectly secure. A " stampede" is more to be dreaded upon the plains than almost any disaster that can happen. It not unfrequently occurs that very many animals are irretrievably lost in this way, and the objects of an expedition thus defeated.
The Indians are perfectly familiar with the habits and disposition of horses and mules, and with the most effectual methods of terrifying them. Previ- ous to attempting a stampede, they provide them-
STAMPEDES. 69
selves with rattles and other means for making frightful noises; thus prepared, they approach as near the herds as possible without being seen, and suddenly, with their horses at full speed, rush in among them, making the most hideous and un- earthly screams and noises to terrify them, and drive them off before their astonished owners are able to rally and secure them.
As soon as the animals are started the Indians divide their party, leaving a portion to hurry them off rapidly, while the rest linger some distance in the rear, to resist those who may pursue them.
Horses and mules will sometimes, especially in the night, become frightened and stampeded from very slight causes. A wolf or a deer passing through a herd will often alarm them, and cause them to break away in the most frantic manner. Upon one occasion in the Choctaw country, my entire herd of about two hundred horses and mules all stampeded in the night, and scattered over the country for many miles, and it was several days be- fore I succeeded in collecting them together. The alarm occurred while the herders were walking among the animals, and without any perceptible cause. The foregoing facts go to show how im- portant it is at all times to keep a vigilant guard over animals. In the vicinity of hostile Indians, where an attack may be anticipated, several good horses should be secured in such positions that they will continually be in readiness for an emergency
VO PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
of this kind. The herdsmen should have their horses in hand, saddled and bridled, and ready at an instant's notice to spring upon their backs and drive the herds into camp. As soon as it is dis- covered that the animals have taken fright, the herdsmen should use their utmost endeavors to turn them in the direction of the camp,, and this can generally be accomplished by riding the bell mare in front of the herd, and gradually turning her toward it, and slackening her speed as the fa- miUar objects about the camp come in sight. This usually tends to quiet their alarm.
BEPAIKS OF ACCIDENTS. 71
CHAPTER in.
Repairing broken Wagons. — Fording Rivers. — Quicksand. — Wagon Boats. — Bull Boats. — Crossing Packs. — Swimming Animals. — Marching with loose Horses. — Herding Mules. — Best Methods of Marching. — Herding and guarding Ani- mals.— Descending Mountains. — Storms. — Northers.
REPAIRS OF ACCIDENTS.
The accidents most liable to happen to wagons on the plains arise from the great dryness of the atmosphere, and the consequent shrmkage and con- traction of the wood- work in the wheels, the tu-es working loose, and the wheels, in passing over sid- ling ground, oftentimes falling down and breaking all the spokes where they enter the hub. It there- fore becomes a matter of absolute necessity for the prairie traveler to devise some means of repairing such damages, or of guarding against them by the use of timely expedients.
The wheels should be frequently and closely ex- amined, and whenever a tire becomes at all loose it should at once be tightened with pieces of hoop- iron or wooden wedges driven by twos simulta- neously from opposite sides. Another remedy for the same thing is to take off the wheels after en- camping, sink them in water, and allow them to re- main over niecht. This swells the wood, but is only
72 PKAIKIE TKAVELER.
temporary, requiring frequent repetition ; and, after a time, if the wheels have not been made of thor- oughly seasoned timber, it becomes necessary to reset the tires in order to guard against their de- struction by falling to pieces and breaking the spokes.
If the tires run off near a blacksmith's shop, or if there be a traveling forge with the train, they may be tied on with raw hide or ropes, and thus driven to the shop or camp. When a rear wheel breaks down upon a march, the best method I know of for taking the vehicle to a place where it can be repaired is to take off the damaged wheel, and place a stout j)ole of three or four inches in diameter un- der the end of the axle, outside the wagon-bed, and extending forward above the front wheel, where it is firmly lashed with ropes, while the other end of the pole runs six or eight feet to the rear, and drags u-pon the ground. The pole must be of such length and mclination that the axle shall be raised and re- tained in its proper horizontal position, when it can be driven to any distance that may be desired. The wagon should be relieved as much as practica- ble of its loading, as the pole dragging upon the ground will cause it to run heavily.
When a front wheel breaks down, the expedient just mentioned can not be apphed to the front axle, but the two rear wheels may be taken off and placed upon this axle (they will always fit), while the sound front wheel can be substituted ui>on one
KEPAIKS OF ACCIDENTS. 73
side of the rear axle, after which the pole may be applied as before described. This plan I have adopted upon several different occasions, and I can vouch for its efficacy.
The foregoing facts may appear very simple and unimportant in themselves, but blacksmiths and wheelwrights are not met with at every turn of the roads upon the prairies ; and in the wilderness, where the traveler is dependent solely upon his own re- sources, this kind of information will be found high- ly useful.
When the spokes in a wheel shrink more than the felloes, they work loose in the hub, and can not be tightened by wedging. The only remedy m such cases is to cut the felloe with a saw on oppo- site sides, taking out two pieces of such dimensions that the reduced circumference will draw back the spokes into their proper places and make them snug. A thin wagon-bow, or barrel-hoops, may then be wrapped around the outside of the felloe, and se- cured with small nails or tacks. This increases the diameter of the wheel, so that when the tire has been heated, put on, and cooled, it forces back the spokes into their true places, and makes the wheel as sound and strong as it ever was. This simple process can be executed in about half an hour if there be fuel for heating, and obviates the necessity of cutting and welding the tire. I would recom- mend that the tires should be secured with bolts and nuts, which will prevent them from running
74 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
off when they work loose, and, if they have been cut and reset, they should be well tried with a ham- mer where they are welded to make sure that the junction is sound.
FORDING RIVERS.
Many streams that intersect the different routes across our continent are broad and shallow, and flow over beds of quicksand, which, in seasons of high water, become boggy and unstable, and are then exceedingly difficult of crossing. When these streams are on the rise, and, indeed, before any swelling is perceptible, their beds become sur- charged with the sand loosened by the action of the mider-current from the approaching flood, and from this time until the water subsides fording is diffi- cult, requiring great precautions.
On arriving upon the bank of a river of this character which has not recently been crossed, the condition of the quicksand may be ascertained by sending an mtelligent man over the fording-place, and, should the sand not yield under his feet, it may be regarded as safe for animals or wagons. Should it, however, prove soft and yielding, it must be thoroughly examined, and the best track select- ed. This can be done by a man on foot, who will take a number of sharp sticks long enough, when driven into the bottom of the river, to stand above the surffice of the Avater. He starts from the shore, and with one of the sticks and Ids feet tries the
FOEDING RIVEES. 15
bottom in the direction of the opposite bank untU he finds the firmest ground, where he plants one of the sticks to mark the track. A man incurs no danger in walking over quicksand provided he step rapidly, and he will soon detect the safest ground. He then proceeds, planting his sticks as often as may be necessary to mark the way, until he reaches the opposite bank. The ford is thus as- certained, and, if there are footmen in the party, they should cross before the animals and wagons, as they pack the sand, and make the track more firm and secure.
If the sand is soft, horses should be led across, and not allowed to stojD m the stream; and the better to insure this, they should be watered before entering upon the ford ; otherwise, as soon as they stand still, their feet sink in the sand, and soon it becomes difiicult to extricate them. The same rule holds in the passage of wagons : they must be driven steadily across, and the animals never allowed to stop while in the river, as the wheels sink rapidly in quicksand. Mules will often stop from fear, and, when once embarrassed in the sand, they lie down, and will not use the slightest exertion to regain their footing. The only alternative, then, is to drag them out with ropes. I have even known some mules refuse to put forth the least exertion to get up after being pulled out upon firm ground, and it was necessary to set them upon their feet before they were restored to a consciousness of their own powers.
76 PKAIRIE TEAVELEE.
lu crossing rivers where the water is so high as to come into the wagon-beds, but is not above a fording stage, the contents of the wagons may be kept dry by raising the beds between the uprights, and retaining them in that position with blocks of wood placed at each corner between the rockers and the bottom of the wagon-beds. The. blocks must be squared at each end, and their length, of course, should vary with the depth of water, which can be determined before cutting them. This is a very common and simple method of passing streams among emigrant travelers.
When streams are deep, with a very rapid cur- rent, it is difficult for the drivers to direct their teams to the proper coming-out places, as the cur- rent has a tendency to carry them too far down. This difficulty may be obviated by attaching a lariat rope to the leading animals, and having a mounted man ride in front with the rope in his hand, to assist the team in stemming the current, and direct it to- ward the point of egress. It is also a wise pre- caution, if the ford be at all hazardous, to place a mounted man on the lower side of the team with a whip, to urge forward any animal that may not work properly.
Where rivers are wide, with a swift current, they should always, if possible, be forded obliquely down stream, as the action of the water against the wag- ons assists very materially in carrying them across. In crossing the North Platte upon the Cherokee trail at a season when the water was hisjh and
POEDING EIVEES. 79
very rapid, we were obliged to take the only prac- ticable ford, wHch ran diagonally up the stream. The consequence was, that the heavy current, com- ing down with great force agamst the wagons, offer- ed such powerful resistance to the efforts of the mules that it was with difficulty they could retam their footing, and several were drowned. Had the ford crossed obhquely down the river, there would have been no difficulty.
When it becomes necessary, with loaded wagons, to cross a stream of this character against the cur- rent, I would recommend that the teams be doubled, the leading animals led, a horseman placed on each side with whips to assist the driver, and that, be- fore the first wagon enters the water, a man should be sent in advance to ascertain the best ford.
During seasons of high water, men, in traversing the plains, often encounter rivers which rise above a fording stage, and remain in that condition for many days, and to await the falHng of the water might involve a great loss of time. If the traveler be alone, his only way is to swim his horse ; but if he retains the seat on his saddle, his weight presses the animal down into the water, and cramps his movements very sensibly. It is a much better plan to attach a cord to the bridle-bit, and drive him into the stream ; then, seizing his tail, allow him to tow you across. If he turns out of the course, or attempts to turn back, he can be checked with the cord, or by splashing water at his head. If the rider remams in the saddle, he should allow the
80 PRAIEIE TRAVELER.
horse to have a loose rein, and never pull upon it except when necessary to guide. If he wishes to steady himself, he can lay hold upon the mane.
In traveling with large parties, the following ex- pedients for crossing rivers have been successfully resorted to within my own experience, and they are attended with no risk to life or property.
A rapid and deep stream, with high, abrupt, and soft banks, probably presents the most formidable array of unfavorable circumstances that can be found. Streams of this character are occasionally met with, and it is important to know how to cross them with the greatest promptitude and safety.
A train of wagons having arrived upon the bank of such a stream, first select the best point for the passage, where the banks upon both sides require the least excavation for a place of ingress and egress to and from the river. As I have before re- marked, the place of entering the river should be above the coming-out place on the oj)posite bank, as the current will then assist in carrying wagons and animals across. A spot should be sought where the bed of the stream is firm at the place where the animals are to get out on the opposite bank. If, however, no such place can be found, brush and cartli should be thrown in to make a foundation sufiicient to support the animals, and to prevent them from bogging. After the j^lace for crossing has been selected, it will be important to determine tlie breadth of the river between the points of in- gross and egress, in order to show tlie length of
FORDING RIVEES. 81
rope necessary to reach across. A very simple practical method of doing this without instrmnents is found in the French " Manuel du Genie." It is as follows :
The line AB (the distance to be measured) is extended upon the bank to D, from which point, after having marked it, lay off equal distances, DC and Cd; produce BC to 6, making CB=C&; then extend the line db until it intersects the prolongation of the line through CA at a. The distance between ah is equal to AB, or the width of the crossing.
F
82 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
A man who is an expert swimmer then takes the end of a fishing-Hne or a small cord in his month, and carries it across, leaving the other end fixed upon the opposite bank, after which a lariat is at- tached to the cord, and one end of it pulled across and made fast to a tree ; but if there is nothing convenient to which the lariat can be attached, an extra axle or coupling-pole can be pulled over by the man who has crossed, firmly planted in the ground, and the rope tied to it. The rope must be long enough to extend twice across the stream, so that one end may always be left on each shore. A very good substitute for a ferry-boat may be made with a wagon-bed by filling it with empty water- casks, stopped tight and secured in the wagon with ropes, with a cask lashed opposite the centre of each outside. It is then placed in the water bot- tom upward, and the rope that has been stretched across the stream attached to one end of it, while another rope is made fast to the other end, after which it is loaded, the shore-end loosened, and the men on the opposite bank pull it across to the land- ing, where it is discharged and returned for another load, and so on until all the baggage and men are passed over.
The wagons can be taken across by fastening them down to the axles, attaching a rope to the end of the tongue, and another to the rear of each to steady it and hold it from drifting below the landing. It is then pushed into the stream, and
FORDING RIVERS. 83
the men on the opposite bank pull it over. I have passed a large train of wagons in this way across a rapid stream fifteen feet deep without any diffi- culty. I took, at the same time, a six-pounder can- non, which was separated from its carriage, and ferried over upon the wagon-boat ; after which the carriage was pulled over in the same way as described for the wagons.
There are not always a sufficient number of air- tight water-casks to fill a wagon-bed, but a tent- fly, paulin, or wagon-cover can generally be had. In this event, the wagon-bed may be placed in the centre of one of these, the cloth brought up around the ends and sides, and secured firmly with ropes tied around transversely, and another rope fastened lengthwise around under the rim. This holds the cloth in its place, and the wagon may then be placed in the water right side upward, and man- aged in the same manner as in the other case. If the cloth be made of cotton, it will soon swell so as to leak but very little, and answers a very good purpose.
Another method of ferrying streams is by means of what is called by the mountaineers a " hull-hoat^'' the frame-work of which is made of willows bent into the shape of a short and wide skiflT, with a flat bottom. Willows grow upon the banks of almost all the streams on the prairies, and can be bent into any shape desired. To make a boat with but one hide, a number of straight wiUows are cut about an
84 ri?AITiTE TRA.YELET?.
inch ill diameter, the ends sharpened and driven into the ground, forming a frame- work in the shape of a half egg-shell cut through the longitudinal axis* Where these rods cross they are fii-mly secured with strings. A stout rod is then heated and bent aroimd the frame in such a position that the edges of the hide, when laid over it and drawn tight, will just reach it. This rod forms the gunwale, which is secured by strings to the ribs. Small rods are then wattled in so as to make it symmetrical and strong. After which the green or soaked hide is thrown over the edges, sewed to the gunwales, and left to dry. The rods are then cut off even with the gunwale, and the boat is ready for use.
To build a boat with two or more hides : A stout pole of the desired length is placed uj)on the ground for a keel, the ends turned up and secured by a lariat ; willow rods of the required dimensions are then cut, heated, and bent into the proper shape for knees, after which their centres are placed at equal distances upon the keel, and firmly tied with cords. The knees are retained in their proper curv- ature by cords around the ends. After a sufficient number of them have been placed upon the keel, two poles of suitable dimensions are heated, bent around the ends for a gunwale, and firmly lashed to each knee. Smaller willows are then interwoven, so as to model the frame.
Green or soaked hides are cut into the proper shape to fit the frame, and sewed together with
FOKDING KIVEES. 85
buckskin strings; tlien the frame of the boat is placed in the middle, the hide drawn up snug around the sides, and secured with raw-hide thongs to the gunwale. The boat is then turned bottom upward and left to dry, after which the seams where they have been sewed are covered with a mixture of melted tallow and pitch : the craft is now ready for launching.
A boat of this kind is very light and serviceable, but after a while becomes water-soaked, and should always be turned bottom upward to dry whenever it is not in the water. Two men can easily build a hull -boat of three hides in two days which will carry ten men with perfect safety.
A small party travehng with a pack train and ar- riving ujion the banks of a deep stream will not al- ways have the time to stop or the means to make any of the boats that have been described. Should their luggage be such as to become seriously in- jured by a wetting, and there be an India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth disposable, or if even a green beef or buffalo hide can be procured, it may be spread out upon the ground, and the articles of bag- gage placed in the centre, in a square or rectangu- lar form ; the ends and sides are then brought up so as entirely to envelop the package, and the whole secured with ropes or raw hide. It is then placed in the water with a rope attached to one end, and towed across by men in the same manner as the boats before described. If hides be used they will
86 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
require greasing occasionally, to prevent their be- coming water-soaked.
When a mounted party with pack animals arrive upon the borders of a rapid stream, too deep to ford, and where the banks are high and abrupt, with perhaps but one place where the beasts can get out upon the opposite shore, it would not be safe to drive or ride them m, calculating that all will make the desired landing. Some of them will probably be carried by the swift current too far down the stream, and thereby endanger not only their own Hves, but the lives of their riders. I have seen the experiment tried repeatedly, and have known several animals to be carried by the current below the point of egress, and thus drown- ed. Here is a simple, safe, and expeditious method of taking animals over such a stream. Suppose, for example, a party of mounted men arrive upon the bank of the stream. There will always be some good swimmers in the party, and probably others who can not swim at all. Three or four of the most expert of these are selected, and sent across with one end of a rope made of lariats tied to- gether, while the other end is retained upon the first bank, and made fast to the neck of a gentle and good swimming horse; after which another gentle horse is brought up and made fast by a lariat around his neck to the tail of the first, and so on until all the horses are thus tied together. The men who can not swim are then mounted upon
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DKIVIN^G LOOSE HOESES. 89
tlio best swimming horses and tied on, otherwise they are Hable to become frightened, lose their balance, and be carried away in a rapid cm-rent ; or a horse may stumble and throw his rider. After the horses have been strung out in a single line by their riders, and every thing is in readiness, the first horse is led carefully into the water, while the men on the opposite bank, pulling upon the rope, thus direct him across, and, if necessary, aid him in stemming the current. As soon as this horse strikes bottom he pulls upon those behind him, and there- by assists them in making the landing, and in tliis manner all are j^assed over in perfect safety.
DEIVING LOOSE HORSES.
In travelmg with loose horses across the plains, some persons are in the habit of attaching them in pairs by their halters to a long, stout rope stretch- ed between two wagons drawn by mules, each wagon being about half loaded. The principal ob- ject of the rear wagon being to hold back and keej) the rope stretched, not more than two stout mules are required, as the horses aid a good deal with their heads in pulling this wagon. From thirty to forty horses may be driven very well in this man- ner, and, if they are wild, it is perhaps the safest method, exce23t that of leading them with halters held by men riding beside them. The rope to which the horses are attached should be about an inch and a quarter in diameter, with loops or rings
90 PRAIKIE TEAVELEK.
inserted at intervals sufficient to admit the horses without allowing them to kick each other, and the halter straps tied to these loops. The horses, on first starting, should have men by their sides, to accustom them to this manner of being led. The wagons should be so driven as to keep the rope continually stretched. Good drivers must be as- signed to these wagons, who will constantly watch the movements of the horses attached, as well as their own teams.
I have had 150 loose horses driven by ten mount- ed herdsmen. This requires great care for some considerable time, until the horses become gentle and accustomed to their herders. It is important to ascertain, as soon as possible after starting, which horses are wild, and may be likely to stampede and lead off the herd ; such should be led, and never suf- fered to run loose, either on the march or in camp. Animals of this character will soon indicate their propensities, and can be secured during the first days of the march. It is desirable that all animals that will not stampede when not working should run loose on a march, as they pick up a good deal of grass along the road when travelmg, and the success of an expedition, when animals get no other forage but grass, depends in a great degree upon the time given them for grazing. They will thrive much better when allowed a free range than when picketed, as they then are at liberty to select such grass as suits them. It may therefore be set down
METHOD OF ■MARCHING. 91
as an infallible rule never to be departed from, tbat all animals, excepting such as will be likely to stam- pede, should be turned loose for grazing immedi- ately after arriving at the camping-place ; but it is equally important that they should be carefully herded as near the camp as good grass will admit ; and those that it is necessary to picket should be placed upon the best grass, and their places changed often. The ropes to which they are attached should be about forty feet long ; the picket-pins, of iron, fifteen inches long, with ring and SAvivel at top, so that the rope shall not twist as the animal feeds around it ; and the pins must be firmly driven into tenacious earth.
Animals should be herded during the day at such distances as to leave sufficient grass undisturbed around and near the camp for grazing through the night.
METHOD OF MAECHING.
Among men of limited ex23erience in frontier life will be found a great diversity of oj)inion regarding the best methods of marching, and of treating ani- mals in expeditions upon the prairies. Some will make late starts and travel during the heat of the day without nooning, while others will start early and make two marches, laying by during the mid- dle of the day ; some will picket their animals con- tinually in camp, while others will herd them day and night, etc., etc. For mounted troops, or, indeed,
92 PEAIKIE TKAVELEE.
for any body of men traveling witli horses and mules, a few general rules may be specified which have the sanction of mature experience, and a deviation from them will inevitably result in consequences highly detrimental to the best interests of an expedition.
In ordmary marches through a country where grass and water are abundant and good, animals re- ceiving proper attention should not fall away, even if they receive no grain ; and, as I said before, they should not be made to travel faster than a walk un- less absolutely necessary ; neither should they be taken off the road for the purpose of hunting or chasing buffalo, as one buffalo-chase injures them more than a week of moderate riding. In the vi- cinity of hostile Indians, the animals must be care- fully herded and guarded within protection of the camp, while those picketed should be changed as often as the grass is eaten off within the circle de- scribed by the tether-rope. At night they should be brought within the chain of sentinels and pick- eted as compactly as is consistent Avith the space needed for grazing, and under no circumstances, unless the Indians are known to be near and an at- tack is to be expected, should they be tied up to a picket Hue where they can get no grass. Unless allowed to graze at night they will fall away raj^id- ly, and soon become unserviceable. It is much bet- ter to march after nightfall, turn some distance off the road, and to encamp without fires in a depressed locality where the Indians can not track the party, and the animals may l)c picketed without danger.
METHOD OF :marciitxg. 93
In descending abrupt hills and mountains one wheel of a loaded wagon should always be locked, as this relieves the wheel animals and makes every thing more secure. When the declivity is great both rear wdieels should be locked, and if very ab- ru]3t, requiring great effort on the wheel animals to hold the wagon, the wheels should be rough-locked by lengthening the lock-chains so that the part which goes around the wheels will come directly upon the ground, and thus create more friction. Occasionally, however, hills are met with so nearly perpendicular that it becomes necessary to attach ropes to the rear axle, and to station men to hold back upon them and steady the vehicle down the descent. Rough-locking is a very safe method of passing heavy artillery down abrupt declivities. There are several mountains between the Missouri River and California where it is necessary to resort to one of the two last-mentioned methods in order to descend with security. If there are no lock-chains upon wagons, the front and rear wheels on the same side may be tied together with roj)es so as to lock them very firmly.
It is an old and well-established custom among men experienced in frontier life always to cross a stream upon which it is intended to encamp for the night, and this rule should never be departed from where a stream is to be forded, as a rise during the night might detain the traveler for several days in awaiting the fall of the waters.
94 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
STORMS.
In Western Texas, during the autumn and winter months, storms arise very suddenly, and, when ac- companied by a north wind, are very severe upon men and animals ; indeed, they are sometimes so ter- rific as to make it necessary for travelers to hasten to the nearest sheltered place to save the lives of their animals. When these storms come from the north, they are called '•^ 7iorthers f and as, during the winter season, the temperature often undergoes a sudden change of many degrees at the time the storm sets in, the perspiration is checked, and the system receives an instantaneous shock, against which it requires great vital energy to bear up. Men and animals are not, in this mild chmate, pre- pared for these capricious meteoric revolutions, and they not unfrequently perish under their efiects.
While passing near the head waters of the Colo- rado in October, 1849, I left one of my camps at an early hour in the morning under a mild and soft atmosphere, with a gentle breeze from the south, but had marched only a short distance when the wind suddenly whipped around into the north, bringing with it a furious chilling rain, and in a short time the road became so soft and heavy as to make the labor of pulling the wagons over it very exhausting upon the mules, and they came into camp in a profuse sweat, with the rain pouring down in torrents upon them.
STORMS. 95
They were turned out of harness into the most sheltered place that could be found ; but, instead of eating, as was their custom, they turned their heads from the wind, and remained in that position, chilled and trembling, without making the least effort to move. The rain continued with unabated fury during the entire day and night, and on the follow- ing morning thirty-five out of one hundred and ten mules had perished, while those remaining could hardly be said to have had a spark of vitality left. They were drawn up with the cold, and could with difiiculty walk. Tents and wagon-covers were cut up to protect them, and they were then driven about ^or some time, until a little vital energy was restored, after which they commenced eating grass, but it was three or four days before they recovered sufficiently to resume the march.
The mistake I made was in driving the mules after the "norther" commenced. Had I gone im- mediately into camp, before they became heated and wearied, they would probably have eaten the grass, and this, I have no doubt, would have saved them; but as it was, their blood became heated from overwork, and the sudden chill brought on a reaction which proved fatal. If an animal will eat his forage plentifully, there is but little danger of his perishing with cold. This I assert with much confidence, as I once, when traveling with about 1500 horses and mules, encountered the most ter- rific snow-storm that has been known within the
96 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
memory of the oldest mountaineers. It commenced on the last day of April, and continued without ces- sation for sixty consecutive hours. The day had been mild and pleasant ; the green grass was about six inches high ; the trees had put out their new leaves, and all nature conspired to show that the sombre garb of winter had been jpermanently su- perseded by the smiling attire of spring. About dark, however, the wind turned into the north ; it commenced to snow violently, and increased until it became a frightful tempest, filhng the atmosphere with a dense cloud of driving snow, against which it was impossible to ride or walk. Soon after the storm set in, one herd of three hundred horses and mules broke away from the herdsmen wha were around them, and, in spite of all their efforts, ran at full speed, directly with the w^md and snow, for fifty miles before they stopped.
Three of the herdsmen followed them as far as they were able, but soon became exhausted and lost on the prairie. One of them found his way back to camp in a state of great prostration and suffering. One of the others was found dead, and the third crawlhig about upon his hands and knees, after the storm ceased.
It happened, fortunately, that I had reserved a quantity of corn to be used in the event of finding a scarcity of grass, and as soon as the ground be- came covered with snow, so that the animals could not get at the grass, I fed out the corn, which I am
STORMS. 97
induced to believe saved their lives. Indeed, they did not seem to be at all afiected by this prolonged and unseasonable tempest. This occurred u]3on the summit of the elevated ridge dividing the waters of the Arkansas and South Platte Rivers, where storms are said to be of frequent occurrence.
The greater part of the animals that stampeded were recovered after the storm, and, although they had traveled a hundred miles at a very rapid pace, they did not seem to be much affected by it. G
98 PEAIBIE TRAVELER.
CHAPTER IV.
Packing. — Saddles. — Mexican Method. — Madrina, or Bell- mare. — Attachment of the Mule illustrated. — Best Method of Packing. — Hoppling Animals. — Selecting Horses and Mules. — Grama and bunch Grass. — European Saddles. — California Saddle. — Saddle Wounds. — Alkali. —Flies.— Colic. — Rattlesnake Bites. — Cures for the Bite.
PACKING AND DRIVING.
"With a train of pack animals properly organized and equipped, a party may travel with much com- fort and celerity. It is enabled to take short cuts, and move over the country in almost any direction without regard to roads. Mountains and broken ground may easily be traversed, and exemption is gained from many of the troubles and detentions attendant upon the transit of cumbersome wagon- trams.
One of the most essential requisites to the outfit of a pack train is a good pack-saddle. Various pat- terns are in use, many of which are mere mstru- ments of torture upon the backs of the poor brutes, lacerating them cruelly, and causing continued pain.
The Mexicans use a leathern pack-saddle without a tree. It is stuffed with hay, and is very large.
PACKING AND DEIVING.
9.9
covering almost the entire back, and extending far down the sides. It is secured with a broad hair girth, and the load is kept in position by a lash- rope drawn by two men so tight as to give the un- fortimate beast intense suffering.
A pack-saddle is made by T. Grimsley, No. 41 Main Street, St. Louis, Mo. It is open at the top, with a light, compact, and strong tree, which fits the animal's back well, and is covered with raw
GEIMSLET'8 PACK-SABDLE.
hide, put on green, and drawn tight by the con- traction in drying. It has a leathern breast-strap, breeching, and lash-strap, with a broad hair girth fastened in the Mexican fashion. Of sixty-five of these saddles that I used in crossmg the Rocky Mountains, over an exceedingly rough and broken section, not one of them woimded a mule's back,
100 PEAIEIE TRAVELEK.
and I regard them as the best saddles I have ever seen.
No people, probably, are more familiar with the art of packing than the Mexicans. They under- stand the habits, disposition, and powers of the mule perfectly, and will get more work out of him than any other men I have ever seen. TJie mule and the donkey are to them as the camel to the Ai-ab — their porters over deserts and mountains where no other means of transportation can be used to advantage. The Spanish Mexicans are, however, cruel masters, having no mercy upon their beasts, and it is no uncommon thing for them to load their mules with the enormous burden of three or four hundred pomids.
These muleteers believe that, when the pack is firmly lashed, the animal suj^ports his burden better and travels with greater ease, which seems quite probable, as the tension forms, as it were, an ex- ternal sheath supporting and bracing the muscles. It also has a tendency to prevent the saddle from slipping and chafing the mule's back. With such huge cargas as the Mexicans load upon their mules, it IS impossible, by any precautions, to prevent their backs and withers from becoming horribly mangled, and it is common to see them working their animals day after day in this miserable plight. This heavy packing causes the scars that so often mark Mexi- can mules.
The animal, in startmg out from camp in the
PACKING AND DRIVING. 101
morning, groaning under the weight of his heavy burden, seems hardly able to move ; but the pack soon settles, and so loosens the lashing that after a short time he moves along with more ease. Con- stant care and vigilance on the part of the mule- teers are necessary to prevent the packs from work- ing loose and falling oif. The adjustment of a car- ga upon a mule does not, however, detain the cara- van, as the others move on while it is being righted. If the mules are suffered to halt, they are apt to lie down, and it is very difficult for them, with their loads, to rise; besides, they are likely to strain themselves in their efforts to do so. The Mexicans, in traveling with large caravans, usually make the day's march without nooning, as too much time would be consumed in unloading and packing up agam.
Packs, when taken off in camp, should be piled in a row upon the ground, and, if there be a pros- pect of rain, the saddles should be placed over them, and the whole covered with the saddle-blankets or canvas.
The muleteers and herders should be mounted upon well-trained horses, and be careful to keep the animals of the caravan from wandering or scatter- ing along the road. This can easily be done by having some of the men riding upon each side, and others in rear of the caravan.
In herding mules it is customary among prairie travelers to have a bell-mare, to which the mules
102 PRAIRIE TEAYELEE.
soon become so attached that they will follow her wherever she goes. By keeping her in charge of one of the herdsmen, the herds are easily controlled; and durmg a stampede, if the herdsman mounts her, and rushes ahead toward camp, they will generally follow.
In crossing rivers the bell-mare should pass first, after which the mules are easily induced to take to the water and pass over, even if they have to swim. Mules are good swimmers unless they happen, by plunging off a high bank, to get water in their ears, when they are often droT;vTied. Whenever a mule in the water drops his ears, it is a sure indication that he has water in them, and he should be taken out as soon as possible. To prevent accidents of this nature, where the water is deep and the banks abrupt, the mule herds should be allowed to enter slowly, and without crowding, as otherwise they are not only hkely to get their heads under water, but to throw each other over and get injured.
The tnadrma^ or bell-mare, acts a most import- ant part in a herd of mules, and is regarded by ex- perienced campaigners as indispensable to their se- curity. She is selected for her quiet and regular habits. She will not wander far from the camp. If she happen to have a colt by her side, this is no ob- jection, as the mules soon form the most devoted attachment to it. I have often seen them leave their grazing when very lumgry, and flock around a small colt, manifesting their delight by rubbing it
PACKING AND DEIVING. 103
with their noses, licking it with their tongues, kick- ing up their heels, and making a variety of other grotesque demonstrations of affection, while the poor little colt, perfectly unconscious of the cause of these ungainly caresses, stood trembling with fear, but unable to make his escape from the compact ch'cle of his muhsh admirers. Horses and asses are also used as bell animals, and the mules soon become accustomed to following them. If a man leads or rides a bell animal in advance, the mules follow, like so many dogs, in the most orderly procession.
" After traveling about fourteen miles," says Bay- ard Taylor, " we were joined by three miners, and our mules, taking a sudden liking for their horses, jogged on at a more brisk pace. The instincts of the mulish heart form an interesting study to the traveler in the mountains. I would (were the com- parison not too ungallant) liken it to a woman's, for it is quite as uncertain in its sympathies, bestowing its affections when least expected, and, when be- stowed, quite as constant, so long as the object is not taken away. Sometimes a horse, sometimes an ass, captivates the fancy of a whole drove of mules, but often an animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told me that his whole train of mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plains of the Cima- rone, and ran half a mile, when they halted in ap- parent satisfaction. The cause of their freak was found to be a buffalo calf which had strayed from the herd. They were frisking around it in the great-
104 PKAIEIE TEAVELER.
est delight, rubbing tlieir noses against it, throwing lip their heels, and making themselves ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and bray, while the calf, imconscious of its attractive qualities, stood trem- bling in their midst."
" If several large troops," says Charles Darwin, " are turned into one field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead the madrinas a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immedi- ately knows its own bell, and separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for their madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impos- sible to lose an old mule, for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the power of smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina ; .for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of afiection. The feeling, however, is not of an individual nature, for I beheve I am right in saying that any animal with a beU will serve as a madrina."
Of the attachment that a mule will form for a horse, I will cite an instance from my own observa- tion, which struck me at the time as being one of the most remarkable and touching evidences of de- votion that I have ever known among the brute creation.
On leaving Fort Leavenworth with the army for Utah in 1857, one of the officers rode a small mule, whose kind and gentle disposition soon caused him
PACKIIS'G AND DRIVING. 105
to become a favorite among the soldiers, and they named him "Billy." As this officer and myself were often thrown together upon the march, the mule, in the course of a few days, evinced a grow- ing attachment for a mare that I rode. The senti- ment was not, however, reciprocated on her j^art, and she intimated as much by the reversed position of her ears, and the free exercise of her feet and teeth whenever Billy came within her reach ; but these signal marks of displeasure, instead of dis- couraging, rather seemed to increase his devotion, and whenever at liberty he invariably sought to get near her, and appeared much distressed when not permitted to follow her.
On leaving Camp Scott for ISTew Mexico Billy was among the number of mules selected for the expedition. During the march I was in the habit, when starting out from camp in the morning, of leading oif the party, and directmg the packmen to hold the mule until I should get so far in advance with the mare that he could not see us ; but the moment he was released he would, m spite of all the efforts of the packers, start off at a most furi- ous pace, and never stop or cease braying until he reached the mare's side. We soon found it impos- sible to keep him with the other mules, and he was finally permitted to have his own way.
In the course of time we encountered the deep snows in the Rocky Mountains, where the animals could get no forage, and Billy, in common with
106 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
the others, at length became so weak and jaded that he was unable any longer to leave his place in the caravan and break a track through the snow around to the front. He made frequent attempts to turn out and force his way ahead, but after nu- merous unsuccessful efforts he would fall down ex- hausted, and set up a most mournful braying.
The other mules soon began to fail, and to be left, worn out and famished, to die by the wayside ; it was not, however, for some time that Billy showed symptoms of becoming one of the victims, until one evening after our arrival at camp I was informed that he had dropped down and been left upon the road during the day. The men all deplored his loss exceedingly, as his devotion to the mare had touch- ed their kind hearts, and many expressions of sym- pathy were uttered around their bivouac fii'es on that evenmg.
Much to our surprise, however, about ten o'clock, just as we were about going to sleep, we heard a mule braying about half a mile to the rear upon our trail. Sure enough, it proved to be Billy, who, after having rested, had followed upon our track and overtaken us. As soon as he reached the side of the mare he lay down and seemed perfectly con- tented.
The next day I relieved him from his pack, and allowed him to run loose ; but during the march he gave out, and was again abandoned to his fate, and this time we certainly never expected to see liini
PACKING AND DRIVING. 107
more. To our great astonishment, however, about twelve o'clock that night the sonorous but not very musical notes of Billy in the distance aroused us from our slumbers, and again announced his ap- proach. In an instant the men were upon their feet, gave three hearty cheers, and rushed out in a body to meet and escort him into camp.
But this well-meant ovation elicited no response from him. He came reeling and floundering along through the deep snow, perfectly regardless of these honors, pushing aside all those who occupied the trail or interrupted his progress in the least, wan- dered about until he found the mare, dropped down by her side, and remained until morning.
When we resumed our march on the following day he made another desperate effort to proceed, but soon fell down exhausted, when we reluctantly abandoned him, and saw him no more.
Alas ! poor Billy ! your constancy deserved a better fate ; you may, mdeed, be said to have been a victim to imrequited affection.
The articles to be transported should be made up into two packages of precisely equal weight, and as nearly equal in bulk as practicable, otherwise they will sway the saddle over to one side, and cause it to chafe the animal's back.
The packages made, two ropes about six feet long are fastened around the ends by a slij^-knot, and if the packages contain corn or other articles that will shift al)out, small sticks shoiihl be plnced
108 PRAIRIE TRAVELElt.
between the sacks and the ropes, which equalizes the pressure and keeps the packages snug. The ropes are then looped at the ends, and made pre- cisely of the same length, so that the packs will balance and come up well toward the top of the saddle. Two men then, each taking a pack, go upon opposite sides of the mule, that has been pre- viously saddled, and, raising the packs sumiltaneous- ly, place the loops over the pommel and cantel, set- tling them well down into their places. The lash- ing-strap is then thrown over the top, brought through the rings upon each side, and drawn as tight at every turn as the two men on the sides can pull it, and, after having been carried back and forth diagonally across the packs as often as its length admits (generally three or four times), it is made fast to one of the rings, and securely tied in a slip-knot.
The breast-strap and breeching must not be buck- led so close as to chafe the skin ; the girth should be broad and soft where it comes opposite the fore legs, to prevent cutting them. Leather girths should be wrapped with cloth or bound with soft material. The hair girth, being soft and elastic, is much better than leather.
The crupper should never be dispensed with in a mountainous country, but it must be soft, round, and about an inch in diameter where it comes in contact mth the tail, otherwise it will wound the animal in making long and abrupt descents.
PACKING AND DEIVING. 109
In Norway they use a short round stick, about ten inches long, which j^asses under the tail, and from each end of this a cord connects with the saddle.
Camp-kettles, tin vessels, and other articles that will rattle and be Hkely to frighten animals, should be firmly lashed to the packs. When the packs work loose, the lash-strap should be untied, and a man upon each side draw it up again and make it fast. When ropes are used for lashing, they may be tightened by twisting them with a short stick and making the stick fast.
One hundred and twenty-five pounds is a suffi- cient load for a mule upon a long journey.
In traveling over a rocky country, and upon all long journeys, horses and mules should be shod, to prevent their hoofs wearing out or breaking. The mountaineers contend that beasts travel better with- out shoeing, but I have several times had occasion to regret the omission of this very necessary pre- caution. A few extra shoes and nails, with a small hammer, will enable travelers to keep then* animals shod.
In turning out pack animals to graze, it is weU either to keep the lariat ropes upon them with the ends trailing upon the ground, or to hopple them, as no corral can be made into which they may be driven in order to catch them. A very good way to catch an animal without drivinoj him into an m- closure is for two men to take a long rope and stretch
110 PEAIKIE TEAVELEK.
it out at the height of the animal's neck ; some men then drive him slowly up against it, when one of the men with the rope runs around behind the animal and back to the front again, thus taking a turn with the rope around his neck and holding him secure.
To prevent an animal from kicking, take a forked stick and make the forked part fast to the bridle- bit, bringing the two ends above the head and se- curing them there, leaving the part of the stick be- low the fork of sufficient length to reach near the ground when the animal's head is in its natural po- sition. He can not kick up unless he lowers his head, and the stick effectually prevents that.
Tether-ropes should be so attached to the neck of the animal as not to slip and choke him, and the picket-pins never be left on the ropes except Avhen in the ground, as, in the event of a stampede, they are very hkely to swing around and injure the an- imals.
Many experienced travelers were formerly in the habit of securing their animals with a strap or iron ring fastened around the fetlock of one fore foot, and this attached to the tether-rope. This method holds the animal very securely to the picket-pin, but when the rope is first put on, and before he becomes accustomed to it, he is liable to throw himself down and get hurt ; so that I think the -plsm of tethering by the neck or halter is the safest, and, so far as I have observed, is now universally practiced.
The mountameers and Indians seldom tether their
PACKING AND DRIVING. Ill
animals, but prefer the plan of hoppling, as this gives them more latitude for ranging and selectmg the choicest grass.
Two methods of hoppling are practiced among the Indians and hunters of the West : one with a strap about two feet long buckling around the fore legs above the fetlock joints ; the other is what they term the " side liopple^^ which is made by buckhng a strap around a front and rear leg upon the same side. In both cases care should be taken not to buckle the strap so tight as to chafe the legs. The latter plan is the best, because the animal, side- hoppled, is able to go but little faster than a walk, while the front hopple permits him, after a little practice, to gallop off at considerable speed. If the hopples are made of iron connected with chains, like handcuffs, with locks and keys, it will be im- possible for the Indians, without files, to cut them ; but the parts that come in contact with the legs should be covered with soft leather.
" A horse," says Mr. Galton, " may be hoppled with a stirrup-leather by placing the middle around one leg, then twisting it several times and buckling it round the other leg. When you wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two or three feet deep, and, tying your rope to a fagot of sticks or brushwood, or even to a bag filled with sand, bury this m it."
For prairie service, horses which have been raised exclusively upon grass, and never been fed on grain,
112 PEAIRIE TEAVELEE.
or " range liorses^'' as they are called in the "West, are decidedly the best, and will perform more hard labor than those that have been stabled and groom- ed. The large, stout ponies found among some of our frontier settlements are well adapted to this service, and endure admirably. The same remarks hold good in the choice of mules; and it will be found that the square-built, big-bellied, and short- legged Mexican mule will endure far more hard service, on short allowance of forage, than the larger American mule which has been accustomed to grain.
In our trip across the Rocky Mountains we had both the American and Mexican mules, and im- proved a good opportunity of giving their relative powers of endurance a thorough service-trial. For many days they were reduced to a meagre allow- ance of dry grass, and at length got nothing but pine leaves, while their work in the deep snow was exceedingly severe. This soon told upon the Amer- ican mules, and all of them, with the exception of two, died, while most of the Mexican mules went through. The result was perfectly conclusive.
We found that, where the snow was not more than two feet deep, the animals soon learned to paw it away and get at the grass. Of course they do not get sufficient in this way, but they do much better than one would suppose.
In Utah and New Mexico the autumn is so dry that the grass does not lose its nutritious properties
PACKING AND DRIVING. 113
by being washed with rains. It gradually dries and cures like hay, so that animals eat it freely, and will fatten upon it even in mid-winter. It is seldom that any gram is fed to stock in either of these territories.
Several of the varieties of grass growing upon the slopes of the Rocky Mountains are of excel- lent quality; among these may be mentioned the Gramma and bunch grasses. Horses and mules turned out to graze always prefer the grass upon the mountain sides to grass of the valleys.
We left New Mexico about the first of March, six weeks before the new grass appeared, with 1500 animals, many of them low in flesh, yet they im- proved upon the journey, and on their arrival in Utah were all, with very few exceptions, in fine working condition. Had this march been made at the same season in the country bordering upon the Missouri River, where there are heavy autumnal rains, the animals would probably have become very poor.
In this journey the herds were allowed to range over the best grass that could be found, but were guarded both night and day with great care, where- as, if they had been corraled or picketed at night, I dare say they would have lost flesh.*
* Some curious and interesting experiments are said to have
been recently made at the veterinary school at Alfort, near
Paris, by order of the minister of war, to ascertain the powers
of endurance of horses. It appears that a horse will live on
H
114 PKAIRIE TEAVELER.
SADDLES.
Great diversity of opinion exists regarding the best equipment for horses, and the long-mooted question is as yet very far from being definitely settled.
I do not regard the opinions of Europeans as having a more direct bearing upon this question, or as tending to estabhsh any more definite and posi- tive conclusions regarding it than have been devel- oped by the experience of our own border citizens, the major part of whose lives has been spent in the saddle ; yet I am confident that the following brief description of the horse equipments used in dififer- ent parts of Europe, the substance of which I have extracted from Captain M'Clellan's interesting re- port, will be read with interest and instruction.
The saddle used by the African chasseurs consists of a plain wooden tree, with a pad upon the top, but without skirts, and is somewhat similar to our own military saddle, but lower in the pommel and cantle.
water alone five-and-twenty days ; seventeen days without eating or drinking ; only five days if fed and unwatered ; ten days if fed and insufficiently watered. A horse kept without water for three days drank one hundred and four pounds of water in three minutes. It was found that a horse taken im- mediately after "feed," and kept in the active exercise of the "squadron school," completely digested its "feed" in three hoiu's; in the same time in the "conscript's school" its food was two thirds digested ; and if kept perfectly quiet in the stable, its digestion was scarcely commenced in tJiree hours.
SADDLES. 115
The girth and surcingle are of leather, with an or- dinary woolen saddle-blanket. Their bridle has a single head-stall, with the Spanish bit buckled to it.
A new saddle has recently been introduced into the French service by Captain Cogent, the tree of which is cut out of a single piece of wood, the can- tie only being glued on, and a piece of walnut let into the pommel, with a thin strip veneered upon the front ends of the bars. The pommel and cantle are lower than in the old model ; the Avhole is cov- ered with w^et raw hide, glued on and sewed at the edges. The great advantage this saddle possesses is in being so arranged that it may be used for horses of all sizes and conditions. The saddle-blank- et is made of thick felt cloth, and is attached to the pommel by a small strap passing through holes in the blanket, which is thus prevented from slipping, and at the same time it raises the saddle so as to admit a free circulation of air over the horse's spine.
The Hungarian saddle is made of hard wood en- tirely uncovered, with a raised pommel and cantle. The seat is formed with a leather strap four inches wide nailed to the forks on the front and rear, and secured to the side-boards by leather thongs, thus giving an elastic and easy saddle-seat. This is also the form of the saddle-tree used by the Russian and Austrian cavalry. The Russians have a leather girth fastened by three small buckles : it passes over the tree, and is tied to the side-boards. The saddle- bkmket is of stout felt cloth in four thicknesses, and
116 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
a layer of black leather over it, and the whole held together by leather thongs passmg through and through. When the horse falls off in flesh, more thicknesses are added, and " vice versaP This sad- dle-blanket is regarded by the Kussian oflicers as the best possible arrangement. The Russians use the curb and snaffle-bits made of steel.
The Cossack saddle has a thick padding under the side-boards and on the seat, which raises the rider very high on his horse, so that his feet are above the bottom of the belly. Their bridle has but a simple snaffle-bit, and no martingale.
The Prussian cuirassiers have a heavy saddle with a low pommel and cantle, covered with leather, but it is not thought by Captain M'Clellan to present any thing worthy of imitation.
The other Prussian cavalry ride the Hungarian saddle, of a heaAder model than the one in the Aus- trian service. The surcmgle is of leather, and fast- ens in the Mexican style; the girth is also of leather, three and a half inches wide, with a large buckle. It is in two parts, attached to the bars by raw-hide thongs. The curb and snaffle steel bits are used, and attached to a single head-stall.
The English cavalry use a saddle which has a low- er cantle and pommel than our Grimsley saddle, covered with leather. The snaffle-bit is attached to the halter head-stall by a chain and T ; the curb has a separate head-stall, which on a march is occasion- ally taken off and hung on the carbine stock.
SADDLES. 117
The Sardinian saddle has a bare wooden tree very similar to the Hungarian. A common blanket, folded in twelve thicknesses, is placed under it. The girth and surcingle are of leather.
Without expressing any opinion as to the com- parative merits of these different saddles, I may be permitted to give a few general principles, which I regard as infallible in the choice of a saddle.
The side-boards should be large, and made to con- form to the shape of the horse's back, thereby dis- tributing the burden over a large surface. It should stand up well above the spine, so as to admit a free circulation of air under it.
For long journeys, the crupper, where it comes in contact with the tail, should be made of soft leather. It should be drawn back only far enough to hold the saddle from the withers. Some horses require much more tension upon the crupper than others. The girth should be made broad, of a soft and elas- tic material. JThose made of hair, in use among the Mexicans, fulfill the precited conditions.
A light and easy bit, which will not fret or chafe the horse, is recommended.''
The saddle-blanket must be folded even and smooth, and placed on so as to cover every j^art of the back that comes in contact with the saddle, and in warm weather it is well to place a gunny bag under the blanket, as it is cooler than the avooI.
It will have been observed that, in the French service, the folded saddle-blanket is tied to the
118 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
pommel to prevent it slipping back. This is well if the blanket be taken oif and thoroughly dried whenever the horse is unsaddled.
A saddle-blanket made of moss is used in some of the Southwestern States, which is regarded by- many as the perfection of this article of horse equip- ment. It is a mat woven into the proper shape and size from the beaten fibres of moss that hangs from the trees in our Southern States. It is cheap, durable, is not in any way affected by sweat, and does not chafe or heat the horse's spine like the woolen blanket. Its open texture allows a rapid evaporation, which tends to keep the back cool, and obviates the danger of stripping and sudden exposure of the heated parts to the sun and air.
The experience of some of our officers who have used this mat for years in Mexico and Texas cor- roborates all I have said in its favor ; and they are unanimous in the opinion that a horse will never get a sore back when it is placed under a good saddle.
A saddle made by the Mexicans in California is called the California saddle. This is extensively used upon the Pacific slope of the mountains, and is believed to possess, at least, as many advantages for rough frontier service as any other pattern that has been mvented. Those hardy and experienced veterans, the mountaineers, could not be persuaded to ride any other saddle, and their ripened knowl- edge of such matters certainly gives weight to their conclusions.
SADDLES.
119
The merits of the California saddle consist in its being light, strong, and compact, and conforming well to the shape of the horse. When strapped on, it rests so firmly in position that the strongest pull of a horse upon a lariat attached to the pommel can
OAIIFOENIA SADDLE.
not displace it. Its shape is such that the rider is compelled to sit nearly erect, with his legs on the continuation of the line of the body, which makes his seat more secure, and, at the same time, gives him a better control over his arms and horse. This
120 PEAIRIE TEAVELER.
position is attained by setting the stirup-leathers farther back than on the old-fashioned saddle. The pommel is high, like the Mexican saddle, and pre- vents the rider from being thrown forward. The tree is covered with raw hide, put on green, and sewed; when this dries and contracts it gives it great strength. It has no iron in its composition, but is kept together by buckskin strings, and can easily be taken to pieces for mending or cleaning. It has a hair girth about five inches wide.
The whole saddle is covered with a large and thick sheet of sole-leather, having a hole to lay over the pommel ; it extends back over the horse's hips, and protects them from rain, and when taken off in camp it furnishes a good security against dampness when placed under the traveler's bed.
The California saddle-tree is regarded by many as the best of all others for the horse's back, and as having an easier seat than the Mexican.
General Comte de la Roche- Aymon, in his treat- ise upon "Light Troops," published in Paris in 1856, says:
"In nearly all the European armies the equip- ment of the horse is not in harmony with the new tactics — with those tactics in which, during nearly all of a campaign, the cavalry remains in bivouac. Have we reflected upon the kind of saddle which, under these circumstances, would cover the horse best without incommoding him during the short periods that he is permitted to repose ? Have we
SADDLES. 121
reflected upon the kind of saddle which, offering the least fragility, exposes the horse to the least danger of sore back? All the cuirassiers and the dragoons of Europe have saddles which they call Fixnch saddle^ the weight of which is a load for the horse. The interior mechanism of these sad- dles is complicated and filled with weak bands of iron, which become deranged, bend, and sometimes break ; the rider does not perceive these accidents, or he does not wish to perceive them, for fear of being left behind or of having to go on foot ; he continues on, and at the end of a day's march his horse has a sore back, and in a few days is absolute- ly unserviceable. We may satisfy ourselves of the truth of these observations by comparing the lists of horses sent to the rear during the course of a campaign by the cuirassiers and dragoons who use the French saddle, and by the hussars with the Hungarian saddle. The number sent to the rear by the latter is infinitely less, although employed in a service much more active and severe ; and it niight be still less by making some slight improvements in the manner of fixing their saddle upon the horse. " It is a long time since Marshal Saxe said there was but one kind of saddle fit for cavalry, which was the hussar saddle : this combined all advant- ages, lightness, solidity, and economy. It is as- tonishing that the system of actual war had not led to the employment of the kmd of saddle in use among the Tartars, the Cossacks, the Himgarians,
122 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
and, indeed, among all horsemen and nomads. This saddle has the incontestable advantage of per- mitting the horse to lie down and rest himself with- out inconvenience. If, notwithstanding the folded blanket which they place under the Hungarian sad- dle, this saddle will still wound the animal's back sometimes, this only proceeds from the friction oc- casioned by the motion of the horse and the move- ment of the rider upon the saddle ; a friction which it will be nearly impossible to avoid, inasmuch as the saddle-bow is held in its place only by a surcin- gle, the ends of which are united by a leathern band : these bands always relax more or less, and the saddle becomes loose. To remedy this, I pro- pose to attach to the saddle-bow itself a double girth, one end of which shall be made fast to the arch in front, and the other end to the rear of the arch upon the right side, to unite in a single girth, which would buckle to a strap attached upon the left side in the usual manner. This buckle will hold' the saddle firmly in its place.
" [N'otwithstanding all these precautions, however, there were still some inconveniences resulting from the nature of the blanket placed under the saddle, which I sought to remedy, and I easily accomplish- ed it. The woolen nap of the cavalry saddle-blank- ets, not being carefully attended to, soon wears oif, and leaves only the rough, coarse threads of the fabric ; this absorbs the sweat from the horse, and, after it has dried and become hard, it acts like a
SORES AND DISEASES. 123
rasp upon the withers, first takmg off the hair, next the skin, and then the flesh, and, finally, the beast is rendered unserviceable.
" I sought, during the campaign of 1807, a means to remedy this evil, and I soon succeeded by a pro- cess as simple as it was cheap. I distributed among a great number of cavalry soldiers pieces of linen cloth folded double, two feet square, and previously dipped in melted tallow. This cloth was laid next to the horse's back, under the saddle-blanket, and it prevented all the bad effects of the woolen blank- et. 'No horses, after this appliance, were afflicted with sore backs. Such are the slight changes which I beheve should be made in the use of the Hunga- rian saddle. The remainder of the equipment should remain (as it always has been) composed of a breast- strap, crupper, and martingale, etc."
The improvements of the present age do not ap- pear to have developed any thing advantageous to the saddle; on the contrary, after exi^erimenting upon numerous modifications and inventions, public sentiment has at length given the preference to the saddle-tree of the natives in Asia and America, which is very similar to that of the Hungarians.
SORES AND DISEASES. If a horse be sweating at the time he is imsad- dled, it is well to strap the folded saddle-blanket upon his back with the surcingle, where it is allow- ed to remain until he is perfectly dry. This causes
124 PEAIEIE TEAVELEK.
the back to cool gradually, and prevents scalding or swelling. Some persons are in the habit of washing their horses' backs while heated and sweatmg with cold water, but this is pernicious, and often pro- duces sores. It is well enough to wash the back after it cools, but not before. After horses' backs or shoulders once become chafed and sore, it is very- difficult to heal them, particularly when they are continued at work. It is better, if practicable, to stop using them for a while, and wash the bruised parts often with castile soap and water. Should it be necessary, however, to continue the animal in use, I have known very severe sores entirely healed by the free application of grease to the parts imme- diately after halting, and while the animal is warm and sweating. This seems to harden the skin and heal the wound even when working with the collar in contact with it. A piece of bacon rind tied upon the collar over the wound is also an excellent remedy.
In Texas, when the horse -files are numerous, they attack animals without mercy, and where a contusion is found in the skin they deposit eggs, which speedily produce worms in great numbers. I have tried the effisct of spirits of turpentine and several other remedies, but nothing seemed to have the desired efiect but calomel blown into the wound, which destroyed the worms and soon eiffected a cure.
In the vicinity of the South Pass, upon the Hum-
SOKES AND DISEASES. 125
boldt River, and in some sections upon other routes to California, alkaline water is found, which is very poisonous to animals that drink it, and generates a disease known in California as " alkali.^'' This dis- ease first makes its appearance by swelhngs upon the abdomen and between the fore legs, and is at- tended w^ith a cough, which ultimately destroys the lungs and kills the animal. If taken at an early stage, this disease is curable, and the following treatment is generally considered as the most effi- cacious. The animal is first raked, after which a large dose of grease is j^oured down its throat; acids are said to have the same efiect, and give im- mediate relief. When neither of these remedies can be procured, many of the emigrants have been in the habit of mixing starch or flour in a bucket of water, and allowing the animal to drink it. It is supposed that this forms a coating over the mucous membrane, and thus defeats the action of the poison.
Animals should never be allowed to graze in the vicmity of alkaline water, as the deposits upon the grass after floods are equally deleterious with the water itself.
In seasons when the water is low in the Hum- boldt River, there is much less danger of the alkali, as the running water in the river then comes from pure mountain springs, and is confined to the chan- nel; whereas, during high water, when the banks are overflowed, the salts are dissolved, making the water more impure.
126 PEAIEIE TKAVELEE.
For colic^ a good remedy is a mixture of two table-spoonfuls of brandy and two tea-spoonfuls of laudanum dissolved in a bottle of water and poured down the animal's throat. Another remedy, which has been recommended to me by an experienced officer as producing speedy relief, is a table-spoon- ful of chloride of lime dissolved in a bottle of water, and administered as in the other case.
RATTLESNAKE BITES.
Upon the southern routes to California rattle- snakes are often met with, but it is seldom that any person is bitten by them ; yet this is a possible con- tingency, and it can never be amiss to have an an- tidote at hand.
Hartshorn applied externally to the wound, and drunk in small quantities diluted with water wdien- ever the patient becomes faint or exhausted from the effects of the poison, is one of the most common remedies.
In the absence of all medicines, a string or liga- ture should at once be bound firmly above the puncture, then scarify deeply with a knife, suck out the poison, and spit out the saliva.
Andersson, in his book on Southwestern Africa, says : " In the Cape Colony the Dutch farmers re- sort to a cruel but apparently effective plan to coun- teract the bad effects of a serpent's bite. An in- cision having been made in the breast of a living fowl, the bitten part is applied to the wound. li'
EATTLESNAKE BITES. 127
the poison be very deadly, the bh'd soon evinces symptoms of distress, becomes drowsy, droops its head, and dies. It is replaced by a second, a third, and more if requisite. "When, however, the bird no longer exhibits any of the signs just mentioned, the patient is considered out of danger. A frog similarly applied is supposed to be equally effica- cious."
Haunberg, in his Travels in South Africa, men- tions an antidote against the bite of serpents. He says : " The blood of the turtle was much cried up, which, on account of this extraordinary virtue, the inhabitants dry in the form of small scales or mem- branes, and carry about them when they travel in this country, wliich swarms with this most noxious vermin. Whenever any one is wounded by a ser- pent, he takes a couple of pinches of the dried blood internally, and ajDplies a little of it to the wound."
I was present upon one occasion when an Indian child was struck in the fore finger by a large rattle- snake. His mother, who was near at the time, seized him in her arms, and, placing the wounded finger in her mouth, sucked the poison from the puncture for some minutes, repeatedly spitting out the saliva ; after which she chewed and mashed some plantain leaves and apphed to the wound. Over this she sprinkled some finely-powdered to- bacco, and wrapped the finger up in a rag. I did not observe that the child sufiered afterward the
128 PEAIRIE TEAVELEK.
least pain or inconvenience. The immediate appli- cation of the remedies probably saved his Hfe.
Irritation from the bite of gnats and musquitoes, etc., may be relieved by chewing the plantain, and rubbing the spittle on the bite.
I knew of another instance near Fort Towson, in Northern Texas, where a small child was left upon the earthen floor of a cabin while its mother was washing at a spring near by. She heard a cry of distress, and, on going to the cabin, what was her horror on seemg a rattlesnake coiled around the child's arm, and striking it repeatedly with its fangs. After killing the snake, she hurried to her nearest neighbor, procured a bottle of brandy, and returned as soon as possible ; but the poison had already so operated upon the arm that it was as black as a negro's. She poured down the child's throat a huge draught of the hquor, w hich soon took efiect, making it very drunk, and stopped the action of the poison. Although the child was relieved, it remain- ed sick for a long time, but ultimately recovered.
A man was struck in the leg by a very large rat- tlesnake near Fort Belknap, Texas, in 1853. 'No other remedy being at hand, a small piece of indigo was pulverized, made into a poultice with water, and applied to the jDuncture. It seemed to draw out the poison, turning the indigo white, after which it was removed and another poultice applied. These applications were re2:)eated until the indigo ceased to change its color. The man was then car-
RATTLESNAKE BITES. 129
ried to the hospital at Fort Belknap, and soon re- covered, and the surgeon of the post pronounced it a very satisfactory cure.
A Chickasaw woman, who was bitten upon the foot near Fort Washita by a ground rattlesnake (a very venomous species), drank a bottle of whisky and applied the indigo poultice, and when I saw her, three days afterward, she was recovering, but the flesh around the wound sloughed away.
A Delaware remedy, which is said to be effica- cious, is to burn powder upon the wound, but I have never known it to be tried excepting upon a horse. In this case it was successful, or, at aU events, the animal recovered.
Of all the remedies known to me, I should de- cidedly prefer ardent spirits. It is considered a sovereign antidote among our "Western frontier set- tlers, and I would make use. of it -with great confi- dence. It must be taken mitil the patient becomes very much intoxicated, and this requires a large quantity, as the action of the poison seems to coun- teract its effects.
Should the fangs of the snake penetrate deep enough to reach an artery, it is probable the person would die in a short time. I imaguie, however, that this does not often occur.
The following remedial measures for the treat- ment of the bites of poisonous rei3tiles are recom- mended by Dr. PhiUp Weston in the London Lan- cet for July, 1859:
I
130 PEAIEIE TEAVELEK.
1. The application of a ligature round tlie limb close to the wound, between it and the heart, to arrest the return of venous blood.
2. Excision of the bitten parts, or free incision through the wounds made by the poison-teeth, sub- sequently encouraging the bleeding by warm solu- tions to favor the escape of the poison from the circulation.
3. Cauterization widely round the limb of the bite with a strong solution of nitrate of silver, one drachm to the ounce, to prevent the mtroduction of the poison into the system by the lymphatics.
4. As soon as indications of the absorption of the poison into the circulation begin to manifest them- selves, the internal administration of ammonia in aerated or soda-water every quarter of an hour, to support the nervous energy and allay the distress- ing thirst.
" But," he continues, " there is yet wanting some remedy that shall rapidly counteract the poison in- troduced into the blood, and assist in expelling it from the system. The well-authenticated accounts of the success attending the internal use of arsenic in injuries arising from the bites of venomous rep- tiles in the East and West Indies, and also in Africa, and the well-known properties of this medicme as a powerful tonic and alterative in conditions of im- paired vitality of the blood arising from the absorp- tion of certain blood-poisons, would lead me to in- clude this agent in the treatment already mention-
EATTLESNAKE BITES. 131
ed. It should be administered in combination with ammonia, in full doses, frequently repeated, so as to neutralize quickly the poison circulating in the blood before it can be eliminated from the system. This could readily be accomplished by adding ten to fif- teen minims of Fowler's solution to the compound spirit of ammonia, to be given every quarter of an hour in aerated or soda-water, until the vomiting and the more urgent symptoms of collapse have subsided, subsequently repeating the dose at longer intervals until reaction had become fully established, and the patient reheved by copious bilious dejec- tions."
Cedron^ which is a nut that grows on the Isth- mus of Panama, and which is sold by the druggists in New York, is said to be an infallible antidote to serpent-bites. Li the Bullet, de VAcad. de Med. for February, 1858, it is stated that a man was bitten at Panama by a coral snaJce^ the most poisonous spe- cies on the Isthmus. During the few seconds that it took him to take the cedron from his bag, he was seized with violent pains at the heart and throat; but he had scarcely chewed and swallowed a piece of the nut about the size of a small bean, when the pains ceased as by magic. He chewed a little more, and applied it externally to the wound, when the pains disappeared, and were followed by a co- pious evacuation of a substance like curdled milk. Many other cases are mentioned wliere the cedron proved an antidote.
132 PKAIEIE TRAVELEK.
CHAPTER V.
Biyouacs. — Tente d'Abri. — Gutta-percha Knapsack Tent. — Comanche Lodge. — Sibley Tent. — Camp Fm-niture. — Lit- ters.— Eapid Traveling. — Fuel. — Making Fires. — Fires on the Prairies. — Jerking Meat. — Making Lariats, — Making Caches, — Disposition of Fire-arms. — Colt's Eevolvers. — Gun Accidents. — Trailing. — Indian Sagacity.
BIVOUACS AND TENTS.
In traveling with pack animals it is not always convenient or practicable to transport tents, and the traveler's ingenuity is often taxed in devising the most available means for making himself comforta- ble and secure against winds and storms. I have often been astonished to see how soon an expe- rienced voyager, without any resources save those provided by nature, will erect a comfortable shelter in a place where a person having no knowledge of woodcraft would never think of such a thing.
Almost all people in different parts of the world have their own peculiar methods of bivouacking.
In the severe climate of Thibet, Dr. Hooker in- forms us that they encamp near large rocks, which absorb the heat during the day, and give it out slowly during the night. They form, as it were,- reservoirs of caloric, the influence of which is ex- ceedingly grateful during a cold night.
BIVOUACS AND TENTS. 133
In the polar regions the Esqnimanx live and make themselves comfortable in huts of ice or snow, and with no other combustible but oil.
The natives of Australia bury their bodies in the sand, keeping their heads only above the surface, and thus sleep warm during the chilly nights of that climate.
Fortunately for the health and comfort of travel- ers upon the Plains, the atmosphere is pure and dry during the greater part of the year, and it is seldom that any rain or dew is seen; neither are there marshes or ponds of stagnant water to generate pu- trid exhalations and poisonous malaria. The night air of the summer months is soft, exhilarating, and delightful. Persons may therefore sleep in it and inhale it with perfect impunity, and, indeed, many prefer this to breathing the confined atmosphere of a house or tent.
During the rainy season only is it necessary to seek shelter. In traveling with covered wagons one always has protection from storms, but with pack trains it becomes necessary to improvise the best substitutes for tents.
A very secure protection against storms may be constructed by planting firmly in the ground two upright poles, with forks. at their tops, and crossing them with a light pole laid in the forks. A gutta- percha cloth, or sheet of canvas, or, in the absence of either of these two, blankets, may be attached by one side to the horizontal pole, the opposite edge
134 PEAIEIE TRAVELEE.
being stretched out to the windward at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the ground, and there fastened with wooden pins, or with buckskin strings tied to the lower border of the cloth and to pegs
UAJLF-FACED CAMP.
driven firmly into the earth. This forms a shelter for three or four men, and is a good defense against winds and rains. If a fire be then made in front, the smoke will be carried away, so as not to incom- mode the occupants of the bivouac.
This is called a " half-faced" camp.
Another method practiced a great deal among mountain men and Indians consists in placing sev- eral rough poles equidistant around in a half circle, and bringing the small ends together at the top, where they are bound wijth a thong. This forms the conical frame-work of the bivouac, which, when covered with a cloth stretched around it, makes a very good shelter, and is preferable to the half- faced camp, because the sides are covered.
BIVOUACS AND TENTS.
135
CONICAL BIVOUAC.
When no cloths, blankets, or hides are at hand to be placed over the poles of the lodge, it may be covered with green boughs laid on compactly, so as to shed a good deal of rain, and keep out the wind in cold weather. We adopted this descrip- tion of shelter in crossing the Rocky Moxmtains during the winter of 1857-8, and thus formed a very effectual protection against the bleak winds which sweep with great violence over those lofty and inhospitable sierras. We always selected a dense thicket for our encampment, and covered the lodges with a heavy coatmg of pine boughs, wattling them together as compactly as possible, and piling snow upon the outside in such a manner as to make them quite impervious to the wmd. The fires were then kindled at the mouths of the lodges, and our
136 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
heads and bodies were completely sheltered, while our feet were kept warm by the fires.
The French troops, while serving in the Crimea, used what they call the te7ite cVah% or shelter tent, which seems to have been received with great favor in Europe. It is composed of two, four, or six square pieces of cloth, with buttons and button- holes adjusted upon the edges, and is pitched by planting two upright stakes in the ground at a dis- tance corresponding with the length of the canvas when buttoned together. The tAVO sticks are con- nected by a cord passed around the top of each, drawn tight, and the ends made fast to pins driven firmly into the ground. The canvas is then laid over the rope between the sticks, spread out at an angle of about forty-five degrees, and the loAver edges secured to the earth with wooden pins. This makes some defense against the weather, and was the only shelter enjoyed by the mass of the French army in the Crimea up to October, 1855. For a permanent camp it is usual to excavate a shallow basement under the tent, and to bank up the earth on the outside in cold weather. It is de- signed that upon marches the teiite cPahri shall be taken to pieces and carried by the soldiers.
A tent, invented by an officer of the U. S. Army, has recently been prepared by Mr. John Rider, 165 Broadway, New York, which is called the " tent hnapsackP It has been examined by a board of army officers, and recommended for adoption in our military service.
riVOUACS AND TENTS.
137
TENT KNArSACK.
This tent is somewhat similar to the tente Wdbri^ and is pitched in the same manner, but it has this advantage, that each separate piece may be con- verted into a water-proof knapsack.
The following extracts from the Report of the Board go to show that this tent knapsack will be useful to parties traveHng on the prairies with pack trains :
138 PRAIEIE TEAVELEE.
" It is a piece of gutta-percha 5 feet 3 inches long, and 3 feet 8 inches wide, with double edges on one side, and brass studs and button-holes along two edges, and straps and buckles on the fourth edge ; the whole weighing three pounds ; two sticks, 3 feet 8 inches long by li inches in diameter, and a small cord. When used as a knapsack, the clothing is packed in a cotton bag, and the gutta-percha sheet is folded round it, lapping at the ends. The cloth- ing is thus protected by two or three thicknesses of gutta-percha, and in this respect there is a supe- riority over the knapsack now used by our troops. Other advantages are, that the tent knapsack has no seams, the parts at which those in use wear out soonest ; it adapts itself to the size of the contents, so that a compact and portable bundle can be made, whether the kit be entire or not ; and, with the cot- ton bag, it forms a convenient, commodious, and durable receptacle for all a soldier's clothing and necessaries.
" On a scout a soldier usually carries only a blank- et, overcoat, and at most a single shirt, pair of drawers, and a pair of socks, all of which can be packed in the tent knapsack in a small bundle, per- fectly protected from rain, and capable of being suspended from the shoulders and carried with comfort and ease during a march.
" 2d. As a shelter. The studs and eyelets along two edges of the tent knapsack are for the purpose of fastening a number of them together, and thus making a sheet of larger dimensions.
" A sheet formed by fastening together four knap- sacks was exhibited to the Board, stretched upon a frame of wood. When used in service the sheet is to be stretched on a rope supported by two poles, or by two rifles, muskets, or carbines, and pinned down at the sides with six pins, three on each side.
',t M*,,' I' ',
BIVOUACS AND TEXTS. 141
"The sheet of four knapsacks is 10 feet 6 inches long, and 1 feet 4 inches wide, and when pitched on a rope 4 feet 4 inches above the ground, covers a horizontal space 6 feet 6 inches wide, and 7 feet 4 inches long, which will accommodate five men, and may be made to shelter seven. The sheet can also be used on the ground, and is a great protection from dampness, and as a shawl or talma ; indeed, a variety of advantageous uses to which the gutta- percha sheet may be put will suggest themselves to persons using it.
" The Board is satisfied with its merits in all the uses to which it is proj^osed to be put, and is of opinion that the gutta-percha tent knapsack may be adopted in the military service with advantage."
The usual tenement of the prairie tribes, and of the traders, trappers, and hunters who live among them, is the Comanche lodge, which is made of eight straight peeled poles about twenty feet long, covered with hides or cloth. The lodge is pitched by connecting the smaller extremities of three of the poles with one end of a long line. The three poles are then raised perpendicularly, and the larger extremities spread out in a tripod to the circumfer- ence of the circle that is to form the base of the lodge. The other poles are then raised, laid into the forks of the three first, and spread out equidis- tant upon the circle, thus forming the conical frame- work of the structure. Nine or ten poles are gen- erally used in one lodge.
The long line attached to the tripod is then wound several times around the top, where the
142 PEAIEIE TRAVELER.
poles intersect, and tlie lower end made fast at the base of the lodge, thus securmg the frame firmly in its position. The covering, made of buffalo hides, dressed without the hair, and cut and sewed to- gether to fit the conical frame, is raised with a pole, spread out around the structure, and united at the edges with sharpened wooden pegs, leaving sufii- cient space open at the bottom for a doorway, which may be closed with a blanket spread out with two small sticks, and suspended over the opening.
The lower edge of the lodge is made fast to the ground with wooden pins. The apex is left open, with a triangular wing or flap on each side, and the windward flap constantly stretched out by means of a pole inserted into a pocket in the end of it, which causes it to draw like a sail, and thus occa- sions a draught from the fire built upon the groimd in the centre of the lodge, and makes it warm and comfortable in the coldest winter weather. Canvas makes a very good substitute for the buffalo-skin covering.
SIBLEY TENT.
A tent has been invented by Major H. H. Sibley, of the army, which is known as the " Sibley tentP It is somewhat similar to the Comanche lodge, but in place of the conical frame-work of poles it has but one upright standard, resting upon an iron tri- pod in the centre. The tripod can be used to sus- pend cooking utensils over the fire, and, when fold-
SIBLEY TENT.
143
ed iq:*, admits the wooden standard between the legs, thereby reducing the length one half, and making it more convenient for packing and trav- eling.
TUE SIBLEY TE>iT.
This tent constituted the entire shelter of the army in Utah during the wmter of 1 857-8, and, notwithstanding the severity of the climate in the elevated locality of Camp Scott, the troops were quite comfortable, and pleased with the tent.
In permanent camps the Sibley tent may be so pitched as to give more room by erecting a tripod upon the outside with three poles high and stout
144 PEAIKIE TEAYELER.
enough to admit of the tent's being suspended by ropes attached to the apex. This method dispenses with the necessity of the central upright standard.
When the weather is very cold, the tent may be made warmer by excavating a basement about three feet deep, which also gives a wall to the tent, mak- ing it more roomy.
The tent used in the army will shelter comforta- bly twelve men.
Captain G. Rhodes, of the English army, in his recent work uj)on tents and tent-life, has given a description of most of the tents used in the diiferent armies in Europe, but, in my judgment, none of them, in point of convenience, comfort, and econo- my, will compare with the Sibley tent for campaign- ing in cold weather. One of its most important features, that of admitting of a fire within it and of causmg a draught by the disjoosition of the wings, is not, that I am aware, possessed by any other tent. Moreover, it is exempt from the objections that are urged against some other tents on account of insalubrity from want of top ventilation to carry off the impure air during the night.
CAMP rUENITUEE.
The accompanying illustrations present some con- venient articles of portable camp furniture.
Camp Chair No. 1 is of oak or other hard wood. Fig. 1 represents it opened for use ; in Fig. 2 it is closcii for transportation. A is a stout canvas.
CAMP CIIAIK. NO. 1.
CAMP CUAJK8. N08. 2 AND 3,
K
TJjJ.
CAMP TABLE
CAMP FURNITURE. 147
forming tlie back and seat; J, 5, h are iron butt- hinges ; c, c are leather straps, one inch and a quar- ter wide, forming the arms ; d is an iron rod, with nut and screw at one end.
Camp Chair No. 2 is made of sticks tied togeth- er with thongs of buckskin or raw hide.
Camp Chair No. 3 is a very comfortable seat, made of a barrel, the part forming the seat being filled with grass.
Camp Table. Fig. 1 represents the table folded for transportation ; m Fig. 2 it is spread out for use. A is the top of the table ; a, a are side boards, and c, c are end boards, turning on butt-hinges, J, 5, h.
Field Cots. In No. 1, A represents the cot put up for use; B^ the cot folded for transportation. The legs turn upon iron bolts nmning through the head and foot boards ; they are then placed upon the canvas, and the whole is rolled up around the side pieces. In No. 2 the upper figure represents the cot put up for use ; the lower shoAvs it folded for transportation. JL is a stout canvas ; ^, h are iron butt-hinges ; c, c, the legs ; c?, c?, leather straps, with buckles, which hold the legs firm ; f^ f^ ends, which fold upon hinges ; </, g^ cross-bars from leg to leg. This cot is strong, light, and portable.
Camp Bureau. This cut represents two chests, A^ A, with their handles, a, a; the covers taken ofi", they are placed one upon the other, and secured by the clamps J3, B ; d shows the division between the two chests. When it is to be transported, the
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CAMP BUREAU.
MESS-OUEST.
150 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
knobs, c, are unscrewed from the drawers, the look- ing-glass, /*, is removed, the drawers are filled with clothing, etc., and the lids are screwed on.
Mess-chest. A represents the chest open for table; ^ is the same closed; C is the upper tray of tin, with compartments, b, b ; ^ is the lower wooden tray, divided into compartments, a, a, for various purposes, and made fast to the bottom of the chest ; c?, d are lids opening with hinges ; f (in figure B) is a wooden leg, turning upon a hinge, and fitting snugly between two pieces of wood screwed upon the cover.
LITTERS.
Should a party traveling with pack animals, and without ambulances or wagons, have one of its members wounded or taken so sick as to be unable to walk or ride on horseback, a litter may be con- structed by taking two poles about twenty feet in length, uniting them by two sticks three feet long lashed across the centre at six feet apart, and stretching a piece of stout canvas, a blanket, or hide between them to form the bed. Two steady horses or mules are then selected, placed between the poles in the front and rear of the litter, and the ends of the poles made fast to the sides of the ani- mals, either by attachment to the stirrups or to the ends of straps secured over their backs.
The patient may then be placed upon the litter, and is ready for the march.
LITTEKS. 153
Tho elasticity of the long poles gives an easy mo- tion to the conveyance, and makes this method of locomotion much more comfortable than might be supposed.
The prairie Indians have a way of transporting their sick and children upon a htter very similar in construction to the one just described, excepting that one animal is used instead of two. One end of the litter is made fast to the sides of the animal, while the other end is left to trail upon the ground. A projection is raised for the feet to rest against and prevent the patient from sliding down. In- stead of canvas, the Indians sometimes lash a large willow basket across the poles, in which they place the person to be transported. The animals har- nessed to the litter must be carefully conducted upon the march, and caution used in passing over rough and broken ground.
A very convenient and comfortable method of packing a sick or wounded man when there are no animals disposable, and which is sometimes resorted to by the Indians, is to take two small poles about ten feet long, and lash three cross-pieces to them, one in the centre, and the other two about eighteen inches from the ends. A blanket or hide is then secured firmly to this frame, and the patient placed upon it under the centre cross-piece, which prevents him from falling out. Two men act as carriers, walkmg between the ends of the long poles. The patient may be protected against the rain or sun by
154
PEAIBIE TRAVELER.
BAi^P-UTTEK.
bending small wiUows over the frame, and coveiuig tliem with a cloth.
RAPID TRAVELING.
Small parties with good animals, hght vehicles, and little lading, may traverse the Plains rapidly and comfortably, if the following injunctions be observed.
The day's drive should commence as soon as it
FUEL AND riEE. 155
is light, and, where the road is good, the animals kept upon a slow trot for about three hours, then immediately turned out upon the best grass that can be found for two hours, thus giving time for grazing and breakfast. After which another drive of about three hours may be made, making the noon halt about three hours, when the animals are again harnessed, and the journey continued until night.
In passing through a country infested by hostile Indians, the evening drive should be j)rolonged until an hour or two after dark, turning off at a point where the ground is hard, going about half a mile from the road, and encamping without fires, in low ground, where the Indians will find it diffi- cult to track or see the party.
These frequent halts serve to rest and recruit the animals so that they will, without injury, make from thirty to forty miles a day for a long time. Thip ^^owever, can only be done with very fight If ^ .md vehicles, such, for example, as an ambu- lance with four mules, only three or four persons, and a small amount of luggage.
FUEL AND FIRE. There are long distances upon some of the routes to California where no other fuel is found but the dried dung of the buffalo, called by the mountain- eers " chips," and by the French " bois de vache," the argul of the Tartary deserts. It burns weU
156 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
when perfectly dry, answers a good purpose for cooking, and some men even prefer it to wood. As it will not burn when wet, it is well, in a coun- try where no other fuel can be had, when it threat- ens to rain, for the traveler to collect a supply before the rain sets in, and carry it in wagons to the camp. When dry, the chips are easily lighted.
A great saving in fuel may be made by digging a trench about two feet long by eight inches in width and depth ; the fires are made in the bottom of the trench, and the cooking utensils placed upon the top, where they receive aU the heat. This plan is especially recommended for windy weather, and it is convenient at aU times. The wood should be cut short, and split into small pieces.
It is highly important that travelers should know the different methods that may be resorted to for kindling fires upon a march.
The most simple and most expeditious of these is by using the lucifer matches ; but, unless they are kept in well-corked bottles, they are hable to be- come wet, and wiU then fail to ignite.
The most of those found in the shops easily im- bibe dampness, and are of but little use in the prairies. Those marked " Van Duser, New York," and put up in flat rectangular boxes, are the best I have met with, and were the only ones I saw which were not affected by the humid climate of Mexico. Wax lucifers are better than wooden, as they are impervious to moisture.
FUEL AND FIRE. 157
I have seen an Indian start a fire with flint and steel after others had failed to do it with matches. This was during a heavy rain, when almost aU avail- able fuel had become wet. On such occasions dry fuel may generally be obtained under logs, rocks, or leaning trees.
The inner bark of some dry trees, cedar for in- stance, is excellent to kindle a fire. The bark is rubbed in the hand until the fibres are ma^e fine and loose, when it takes fire easily ; dry grass or leaves are also good. After a suflicient quantity of small kindhng fuel has been collected, a moist- ened rag is rubbed with powder, and a spark struck into it with a flint and steel, which will ignite it ; this is then placed in the centre of the loose nest of inflammable material, and whirled around in the air until it bursts out into a flame. When it is rain- ing, the blaze should be laid upon the dryest spot that can be found, a blanket held over it to keep off the water, and it is fed with very small bits of dry wood and shavings until it has gained sufficient strength to burn the larger damp wood. When no dry place can be found, the fire nmy be started in a kettle or frying-pan, and afterward transferred to the ground.
Should there be no other means of starting a fire, it can always be made with a gun or pistol, by placing upon the ground a rag saturated with damp powder, and a httle dry powder sprinkled over it. The gun or pistol is then (uncharged)
158 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
placed with the cone directly over and near the rag, and a cap exj^loded, which will invariably ig- nite it. Another method is by placing about one fourth of a charge of powder into a gun, pushing a rag down loosely upon it, and firing it out with the muzzle down near the ground, which ignites the rag.
The most difficult of all methods of making a fire, but one that is practiced by some of the Western Indians, is by friction between two pieces of wood. I had often heard of this process, but never gave credit to its practicability until I saw the experi- ment successfully tried. It was done in the follow- ing manner : Two dried stalks of the Mexican soap- plant, about three fourths of an inch in diameter, were selected, and one of them made flat on one side ; near the edge of this flat surface a very small indentation was made to receive the end of the other stick, and a groove cut from this down the side. The other stick is cut with a rounded end, and placed upright upon the first. One man then holds the horizontal piece upon the ground, while another takes the vertical stick between the palms of his hands, and turns it back and forth as rapidly as possible, at the same time pressing forcibly down upon it. The point of the upright stick wears away the indentation into a fine powder, which runs ofi* to the ground in the groove that has been cut ; after a time it begins to smoke, and by continued friction it will at length take fire.
FUEL AND FIEE. 159
This is an operation that is difficult, and requires practice; but if a drill-stick is used Avith a cord placed around the centre of the upright stick, it can be turned much more rapidly than with the hands, and the fire j^roduced more readily. The upright stick may be of any hard, dry wood, but the low- er horizontal stick must be of a soft, inflammable na- ture, such as pine, cottonwood, or black walnut, and it must be perfectly dry. The Indians work the sticks with the palms of the hands, holding the low- er piece between the feet ; but it is better to have a man to hold the lower piece while another man works the drill-bow.
Inexperienced travelers are very liable, in kindling fires at their camp, to ignite the grass around them. Great caution should be taken to guard against the occurrence of such accidents, as they might prove exceedingly disastrous. We were very near hav- ing our entire train of wagons and supplies destroy- ed, ujDon one occasion, by the carelessness of one of our party in setting fire to the grass, and it was only by the most strenuous and well-timed efibrts of two hundred men in setting counter fires, and burning around the train, that it was saved. When the grass is dry it will take fire like powder, and if thick and tall, with a brisk wind, the flames run like a race-horse, sweeping every thing before them. A lighted match, or the ashes from a segar or pipe, thrown carelessly into the dry grass, sometimes sets it on fire ; but the greatest danger lies in kindling camp-fires.
160 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
To prevent accidents of this kind, before kindling the fire a space should be cleared away sufficient to embrace the limits of the flame, and all combusti- bles removed therefrom, and while the fire is being made men should be stationed around with blankets ready to put it out if it takes the grass.
When a fire is approaching, and escape from its track is impossible, it may be repelled in the follow- ing manner : The train and animals are parked com- pactly together ; then several men, provided with blankets, set fire to the grass on the lee side, burn- ing it away gradually from the train, and extinguish- ing it on the side next the train. This can easily be done, and the fire controlled mth the blankets, or with dry sand thrown upon it, until an area large enough to give room for the train has been burned clear. Now the train moves on to this ground of safety, and the fire passes by harmless.
JERKING MEAT.
So pure is the atmosphere in the interior of our continent that fresh meat may be cured, or jerked^ as it is termed in the language of the prairies, by cutting it into strips about an inch thick, and hang- ing it in the sun, where in a few days it will dry so well that it may be packed in sacks, and transport- ed over long journeys without putrefying.
When there is not time to jerk the meat by the slow process described, it may be done in a few hours by building an open frame-work of small
LARIATS. 161
Sticks about two feet above the ground, placing the strips of meat upon the top of it, and keeping up a slow fire beneath, which dries the meat rapidly.
The jerking process may be done upon the march without any loss of time by stretching lines from front to rear upon the outside of loaded wagons, and suspending the meat upon them, where it is al- lowed to remain until sufficiently cured to be pack- ed away. Salt is never used in this process, and is not required, as the meat, if kept dry, rarely putre- fies.
If travelers have ample transportation, it will be a wise precaution, in passing through the buffalo range, to lay in a supply of jerked meat for future exigences.
LARIATS.
It frequently happens upon long journeys that the lariat ropes wear out or are lost, and if there were no means of replacing them great inconvenience might result therefrom. A very good substitute may be made by taking the green hide of a buffalo, horse, mule, or ox, stretching it upon the ground, and pinning it do^vn by the edges. After it has been well stretched, a circle is described with a piece of charcoal, embracing as much of the skin as prac- ticable, and a strip about an inch wide cut from the outer edge of sufficient length to form the lariat. The strip is then wrapped around between two trees or stakes, drawn tight, and left to dry, after L
162 PRAIRIE TRAVELER.
which it is subjected to a process of friction until it becomes pHable, when it is ready for use ; this lariat answers well so long as it is kept dry, but after it has been wet and dried again it becomes very hard and unyielding. This, however, may be obviated by boiling it in oil or grease until thoroughly satu- rated, after which it remains pliable.
The Indians make very good lariat ropes of dress- ed buffalo or buck skins cut into narrow strips and braided ; these, when oiled, slip much more freely than the hemp or cotton ropes, and are better for lassoing animals, but they are not as suitable for picketing as those made of other material, because the wolves will eat them, and thus set free the ani- mals to which they are attached.
cach:6s.
It not unfrequently happens that travelers are compelled, for want of transportation, to abandon a portion of their luggage, and if it is exposed to the keen scrutiny of the thieving savages who often follow the trail of a party, and hunt over old camps for such things as may be left, it will be likely to be appropriated by them. Such contingencies have given rise to a method of secreting articles called by the old French Canadian voyagers " caching P
The proper places for making caches are in loose sandy soils, where the earth is dry and easUy ex- cavated. Near the bank of a river is the most con- venient for this purpose, as the earth taken out
CACHES. 1G3
can be thrown into the water, leaving no trace be- hind.
When the spot has been chosen, the turf is care- fully cut and laid aside, after which a hole is dug in the shape of an egg, and of sufficient dimensions to contain the articles to be secreted, and the earth, as it is taken out, thrown upon a cloth or blanket, and carried to a stream or ravine, where it can be dis- posed of, being careful not to scatter any upon the ground near the cache. The hole is then lined with bushes or dry grass, the articles placed within, cov- ered with grass, the hole filled up with earth, and the sods carefully placed back in their original posi- tion, and every thing that would be likely to attract an Indian's attention removed from the locahty. If an India-rubber or gutta-percha cloth is disposable, it should be used to envelop the articles in the cache.
Another plan of making a cache is to dig the hole inside a tent, and occuj^y the tent for some days after the goods are deposited. This efiaces the marks of excavation.
The mountain traders were formerly in the habit of building fires over their caches, but the Indians have become so familiar with this practice that I should think it no longer safe.
Another method of caching which is sometimes resorted to is to place the articles in the top of an evergreen tree, such as the pine, hemlock, or spruce. The thick boughs are so arranged around the pack- ages that they can not be seen from beneath, and
164 PRAIPJE TRAYELEE.
they are tied to a limb to prevent them from be- ing blown out by the wind. This will only answer for such articles as will not become injured by the weather.
Caves or holes in the rocks that are protected from the rains are also secure deposits for caching goods, but in every case care must be taken to ob- literate all tracks or other indications of men having been near them. These caches will be more secure when made at some distance from roads or trails, and in places where Indians would not be